Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Subject and Citations:
Sometimes the abstract nails the paper perfectly:
"This paper describes survey research of fourteen online courses where instructors and students were asked their perceptions about the challenges and essential elements of community in online classes. Results show that both instructors and students believe
building community is very important. The majority of both students and instructors
perceived it to be harder to build community online than in traditional classes. Additionally, while the majority of students and instructors both identified the same
elements for building online community, there were significant ranking differences. Most
striking among the differences was that students ranked instructor modeling as the most
important element in building online community, while instructors ranked it fourth.
Implications of these findings are discussed and recommendations provided for how
instructors can model community behaviors in their online classes" (Vessely, Bloom, & Sherlock, 2007, p. 234).
The authors defined sense of community as having the following:
"1) A sense of shared purpose
"2) Establishment of boundaries defining who is a member and who is not
"3) Establishment and enforcement of rules/policies regarding community behavior
"4) Interaction among members, and
"5) A level of trust, respect and support among community members" (Vessely, Bloom, & Sherlock, 2007, p. 235).
The study supported/added these ideas from the students and instructors:
"[1.] a sense of shared purpose, purposeful [2.] communication involving encouragement and support, [3.] collaborating to learn course material, [4.] working for an extended period of time on a common goal, and [5.] a comfortable exchange of ideas in an organized fashion"(Vessely, Bloom, & Sherlock, 2007, p. 239).
Like many other studies, instructor presence was found to be a massive indicator of positive student experiences online. They also found value in student immediacy. "LaRose & Whitten, (2000) recommend that instructors incorporate “immediacy features” (p. 32) into the design of online classes to build community. They identify three possible sources of immediacy in the virtual classrooms that may generate a sense of belonging and closeness among class participants: the interactions between teacher and students (teacher immediacy); interactions between students (student immediacy) and interactions with the commuter system that delivers the course (computer immediacy). Collectively, these sources constitute instructional immediacy. Incorporating these features into the online classroom serve as incentives for class members to both feel and act as members of a community. Fostering student immediacy is important in building online community because peer groups are valued associations. Student immediacy describes behaviors that create a feeling of closeness between learners (LaRose & Whitten, 2000). Caverly & MacDonald (2002) found that students need to make connections by finding similarities in background, motivation and commitment to have a sense of community. Course design should support community building through faculty presence and student immediacy. Examples include well-designed icebreaker activities, group assignments, and ongoing topical discussions that involve both faculty and the students" (Vessely, Bloom, & Sherlock, 2007, pp. 243-244).
Saturday, February 28, 2015
Stewart, C., Bachman, C., & Johnson, R. (2010). Predictors of faculty acceptance of online education. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(3), 597-616.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Subject and Citations:
The authors expanded the technology acceptance model to predict intention to teach online. "The TAM has been used in IT research to explain user acceptance and a wide range of technology based behaviors (Lee, Cheung, & Chen, 2005). Despite the TAM’s proven capability of explaining technology acceptance, the model has not been broadly applied outside IT and business. The few studies that have extended the TAM beyond IT have found that the inclusion of additional variables is necessary to add explanatory power (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992; Hsu & Lu, 2004; Kim, 2008). Several variables have been related to the TAM such as intrinsic motivation (Roca & Gagne, 2008; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996), facilitating conditions (Cheung, Chang, & Lai, 2000), and competence (Roca & Gagne, 2008; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000).
They sought to determine what factors led to faculty accepting or rejecting the opportunity to teach online. Their research prior to the student led them to conclude:
"Faculty also report a number of other factors related to their resistance to online education. Yang and Cornelius (2005) note that faculty were concerned that their traditional courses were not compatible with online education. Several studies suggest that the amount of time required to transition traditional courses to the online format may be a critical obstacle (Arbaugh, 2000; Hartman, Dzuiban, & Moskai, 2000; Shea, 2007b). Others have reported that faculty were concerned about compensation issues (Hartman et al., 2000; Shea, 2007b), inadequate training (Arbaugh, 2000; Pankowski, 2004), and lack of administrative support (Bower, 2001; Yang & Cornelius, 2005)" (Steward, Bachman, & Johnson, 2010, p. 598).
Their results using the test were generally inconclusive, but they did find that those who were intrinsically motivated to teach traditionally were resistant to online teaching opportunities.
Subject and Citations:
The authors expanded the technology acceptance model to predict intention to teach online. "The TAM has been used in IT research to explain user acceptance and a wide range of technology based behaviors (Lee, Cheung, & Chen, 2005). Despite the TAM’s proven capability of explaining technology acceptance, the model has not been broadly applied outside IT and business. The few studies that have extended the TAM beyond IT have found that the inclusion of additional variables is necessary to add explanatory power (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992; Hsu & Lu, 2004; Kim, 2008). Several variables have been related to the TAM such as intrinsic motivation (Roca & Gagne, 2008; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996), facilitating conditions (Cheung, Chang, & Lai, 2000), and competence (Roca & Gagne, 2008; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000).
They sought to determine what factors led to faculty accepting or rejecting the opportunity to teach online. Their research prior to the student led them to conclude:
"Faculty also report a number of other factors related to their resistance to online education. Yang and Cornelius (2005) note that faculty were concerned that their traditional courses were not compatible with online education. Several studies suggest that the amount of time required to transition traditional courses to the online format may be a critical obstacle (Arbaugh, 2000; Hartman, Dzuiban, & Moskai, 2000; Shea, 2007b). Others have reported that faculty were concerned about compensation issues (Hartman et al., 2000; Shea, 2007b), inadequate training (Arbaugh, 2000; Pankowski, 2004), and lack of administrative support (Bower, 2001; Yang & Cornelius, 2005)" (Steward, Bachman, & Johnson, 2010, p. 598).
Their results using the test were generally inconclusive, but they did find that those who were intrinsically motivated to teach traditionally were resistant to online teaching opportunities.
Dayley, C., & Hoffman, D. D. (2014, October). The work of education in the age of the digital classroom: Resurrecting Frankfurt school philosophies to examine online education. In Professional Communication Conference (IPCC), 2014 IEEE International (pp. 1-11). IEEE.
Categories: Theory & Rhetoric, Technology
Subject and Citations:
What happens when two conservative scholars channel the Frankfurt school scholars to analyze online education? A fun romp through intellectual fields with a few surprising insights. After reviewing the beliefs of the Frankfurt school, its history, and the history of online education, the authors put on the lens of those philosophers and ask what they would say if they were around for the advent of online education.
Dayley and Hoffman concluded that fully-online education students do not experience traditional college life, the campus, the library, the culture, the social aspects of the institution; such students get the learning, the knowledge, and the degree without experiencing the aura of college with the social rites of passage, intangible benefits of growth, personal connections/relationships, and tactile/tangible experience the university provides. The beauty and grandure of the campus is replaced with the posters of the bedroom or the television in the living room.
They questioned the value of some MOOCs and other free (ie iTunes U, EDx, MIT) online courses that provide the learning but do not provide the accredited degrees or certifications of completion. They questioned the scrutiny of the tools used in distance education that could track, control, and manuplate students, and they explored the fiscal motivations for the massive shift to digital education.
Though not groundbreaking, this article raised serious questions about what is lost as online education continues to gain acceptance and momentum.
Subject and Citations:
What happens when two conservative scholars channel the Frankfurt school scholars to analyze online education? A fun romp through intellectual fields with a few surprising insights. After reviewing the beliefs of the Frankfurt school, its history, and the history of online education, the authors put on the lens of those philosophers and ask what they would say if they were around for the advent of online education.
Dayley and Hoffman concluded that fully-online education students do not experience traditional college life, the campus, the library, the culture, the social aspects of the institution; such students get the learning, the knowledge, and the degree without experiencing the aura of college with the social rites of passage, intangible benefits of growth, personal connections/relationships, and tactile/tangible experience the university provides. The beauty and grandure of the campus is replaced with the posters of the bedroom or the television in the living room.
They questioned the value of some MOOCs and other free (ie iTunes U, EDx, MIT) online courses that provide the learning but do not provide the accredited degrees or certifications of completion. They questioned the scrutiny of the tools used in distance education that could track, control, and manuplate students, and they explored the fiscal motivations for the massive shift to digital education.
Though not groundbreaking, this article raised serious questions about what is lost as online education continues to gain acceptance and momentum.
Friday, February 27, 2015
St. Clair, D. J. (2009). My experience with teaching online: Confessions and observations of a survivor. Journal of Online Learning & Teaching, 5(1), 166-175.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
St. Clair shared his experience as a first-time online teacher. His learnings:
"1. Add periods and Open University registration policies are often incompatible with online classes. For example, it often takes two weeks for students to successfully add a class. With ten-week quarters, this is a problem. Traditional class can compensate by allowing waiting students to “sit-in” in the interim, but this is not possible in online classes (e.g., Blackboard access requires enrollment in the class). As a consequence, newly-admitted student entering at the end of the add period will have effectively missed twenty percent of the course. ...
"2. Class scheduling needs to consider an online instructors mix of traditional and online classes. ... my managerial economics course was taught while simultaneously teaching other traditional classes. I found the mixed format very difficult. The schedule and rhythm of online classes are very different from traditional classes. ... [administration] needs to take this into account for instructors who would rather not mix the two.
3. University scheduling is also a problem when it comes to time slots for online classes. ...
4. The university’s technical support for online classes is often inadequate. Blackboard experiences numerous problems, shut-downs, slow-downs, and quirks that frustrate online students. They frustrate instructors as well. Worse, there seems to be no real back-up to Blackboard. The development of an alternative or back-up to Blackboard would be most welcome. Barring this development, better help with technical problems is needed. I was usually left to handle most real-time Blackboard problems on my own because Blackboard support was generally only available during traditional university hours. Worse, some help channels were virtually useless. ...
5. University and college policies that require posted weekly office hours for online classes should be changed. ...
6.My final recommendation seeks a fundamental clarification or refinement in the university’s attitude toward online classes. I think that, like me, university policies worry too much about online classes becoming havens for shirking students. And if truth be told, the university also worries too much about shirking online instructors. ...There should be no “onus” placed on online classes to conform to policies that have little relevance to online instruction" (St. Clair, 2009, pp. 174-175).
Summary and Citations:
St. Clair shared his experience as a first-time online teacher. His learnings:
- The first time teaching a course online takes a lot of preparation and ground work.
- Grades were higher than his traditional classes.
- He supports an idea of selective technology use.
- Online students are different than traditional students.
"1. Add periods and Open University registration policies are often incompatible with online classes. For example, it often takes two weeks for students to successfully add a class. With ten-week quarters, this is a problem. Traditional class can compensate by allowing waiting students to “sit-in” in the interim, but this is not possible in online classes (e.g., Blackboard access requires enrollment in the class). As a consequence, newly-admitted student entering at the end of the add period will have effectively missed twenty percent of the course. ...
"2. Class scheduling needs to consider an online instructors mix of traditional and online classes. ... my managerial economics course was taught while simultaneously teaching other traditional classes. I found the mixed format very difficult. The schedule and rhythm of online classes are very different from traditional classes. ... [administration] needs to take this into account for instructors who would rather not mix the two.
3. University scheduling is also a problem when it comes to time slots for online classes. ...
4. The university’s technical support for online classes is often inadequate. Blackboard experiences numerous problems, shut-downs, slow-downs, and quirks that frustrate online students. They frustrate instructors as well. Worse, there seems to be no real back-up to Blackboard. The development of an alternative or back-up to Blackboard would be most welcome. Barring this development, better help with technical problems is needed. I was usually left to handle most real-time Blackboard problems on my own because Blackboard support was generally only available during traditional university hours. Worse, some help channels were virtually useless. ...
5. University and college policies that require posted weekly office hours for online classes should be changed. ...
6.My final recommendation seeks a fundamental clarification or refinement in the university’s attitude toward online classes. I think that, like me, university policies worry too much about online classes becoming havens for shirking students. And if truth be told, the university also worries too much about shirking online instructors. ...There should be no “onus” placed on online classes to conform to policies that have little relevance to online instruction" (St. Clair, 2009, pp. 174-175).
Thursday, February 26, 2015
Stanford-Bowers, D. E. (2008). Persistence in online classes: A study of perceptions among community college stakeholders. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 4(1), 37-50.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
Bowers sought to determine the causes of persistence in online classes by asking those teachers and administrators deeply involved in the process about why they believe online courses suffer from high attrition rates.
Stanford-Bowers felt that one cause of the drop-rate came from "shifting the paradigm from the traditional teacher centered approaches which have dominated instructional practices of the past. Although the instructor is still the content expert in a virtual environment, students in an online community must assume responsibility for managing their own learning experiences (Bathe, 2001; Conrad & Donaldson, 2004). Many faculty, however, are reluctant to give up their control in the courses they teach, and many learners are reluctant to take a more independent role in their learning (2008, p. 39).
Additionally, she felt that "all these ... factors can be categorized into one of four major barriers to student persistence:
1. Situational barriers are those which occur as the result of changes in the social, economic, or personal life of the student. They include such issues as transportation, age, time constraints, family support, or family responsibilities over which the institution has no control (Cross, 1981; Lorenzetti, 2004).
2. Conversely, institutional barriers result from difficulties with college programs, policies, and procedures; these include issues with admissions, registration, class schedules, financial aid, and other support services over which the institution does have some control (Cross, 1981; Lorenzetti, 2004). Institutional barriers emphasize the need for an institutional support system that can be accessed online (Dahl, 2004).
3. Dispositional barriers result from an individual’s personal background, and which include issues such as attitude, motivation, learning styles, and selfconfidence (Cross, 1981; Lorenzetti, 2004).
4. Epistemological barriers result from problems with academic or institutional matters such as course content, prerequisite knowledge, and expectations (Lorenzetti, 2004; Moore, et al, 2002).
She administered a survey to 39 educators, students, and administrators over a period of eight weeks. This resulted in many ideas, themes, and factors administrators believed played a key roll in student persistence. Then they rated the importance of the factors. The lists were narrowed down and prioritized.
She found the opinions of the groups generally matched. Here were her findings from the surveys:
Summary and Citations:
Bowers sought to determine the causes of persistence in online classes by asking those teachers and administrators deeply involved in the process about why they believe online courses suffer from high attrition rates.
Stanford-Bowers felt that one cause of the drop-rate came from "shifting the paradigm from the traditional teacher centered approaches which have dominated instructional practices of the past. Although the instructor is still the content expert in a virtual environment, students in an online community must assume responsibility for managing their own learning experiences (Bathe, 2001; Conrad & Donaldson, 2004). Many faculty, however, are reluctant to give up their control in the courses they teach, and many learners are reluctant to take a more independent role in their learning (2008, p. 39).
Additionally, she felt that "all these ... factors can be categorized into one of four major barriers to student persistence:
1. Situational barriers are those which occur as the result of changes in the social, economic, or personal life of the student. They include such issues as transportation, age, time constraints, family support, or family responsibilities over which the institution has no control (Cross, 1981; Lorenzetti, 2004).
2. Conversely, institutional barriers result from difficulties with college programs, policies, and procedures; these include issues with admissions, registration, class schedules, financial aid, and other support services over which the institution does have some control (Cross, 1981; Lorenzetti, 2004). Institutional barriers emphasize the need for an institutional support system that can be accessed online (Dahl, 2004).
3. Dispositional barriers result from an individual’s personal background, and which include issues such as attitude, motivation, learning styles, and selfconfidence (Cross, 1981; Lorenzetti, 2004).
4. Epistemological barriers result from problems with academic or institutional matters such as course content, prerequisite knowledge, and expectations (Lorenzetti, 2004; Moore, et al, 2002).
She administered a survey to 39 educators, students, and administrators over a period of eight weeks. This resulted in many ideas, themes, and factors administrators believed played a key roll in student persistence. Then they rated the importance of the factors. The lists were narrowed down and prioritized.
She found the opinions of the groups generally matched. Here were her findings from the surveys:
- Computer access/Accessibility
- Clearly stated requirements
- Time management
- Self discipline
- Responsiveness of Instructor/ Prompt feedback/Student teacher interaction
- Self motivation
- Basic computer skills
- Convenience/Flexibility
- User friendly format
- Reading ability
- Instructors
- Outside assistance
- Reliable server
- Independent learning/Responsibility
- Technical support
- Course design
- Personal contact
Wednesday, February 25, 2015
Ross, J., Sinclair, C., Knox, J., Bayne, S., & Macleod, H. (2014). Teacher experiences and academic identity: The missing components of MOOC pedagogy. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 10(1), 56-68.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Subject and Citations:
The authors wrote about the challenges of teaching a MOOC. Two approaches exist: the perception of a "rock star" lecturer with the lack of interaction and communication with students, or the well-prepared courses with self-led preparation of topics. Using blog(s) and Twitter, the authors collected information about teacher experiences and perceptions. They found that the current conversations about MOOCs do not address the complex feelings and ideas of the instructors. They are not used to the new style of teaching and learning. The paper spent more time exploring the idea of teaching than presenting solutions.
Subject and Citations:
The authors wrote about the challenges of teaching a MOOC. Two approaches exist: the perception of a "rock star" lecturer with the lack of interaction and communication with students, or the well-prepared courses with self-led preparation of topics. Using blog(s) and Twitter, the authors collected information about teacher experiences and perceptions. They found that the current conversations about MOOCs do not address the complex feelings and ideas of the instructors. They are not used to the new style of teaching and learning. The paper spent more time exploring the idea of teaching than presenting solutions.
Ray, J. (2009). Faculty perspective: training and course development for the online classroom. J Online Learn Teach, 5(2), 263-276.
Category: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
Ray's "study investigates the perceptions of faculty currently facilitating instruction in the online environment. Although studies exist focusing on instructors’ satisfaction with instructing in the online format (Awalt, 2003; Conrad, 2004; Dolloph, 2004; Luck & McQuiggan, 2006; Wang, MacArthur, Crosby, 2003; Wilkes, Simon, Brooks, 2006), additional research focusing on faculty perspectives represents an important aspect of gaining a thorough understanding of the online format from a research standpoint. For example, current research fails to adequately scrutinize the difficulty associated with taking a face-to-face course and moving it to the online format, the perceived effects of technical and pedagogical training on the quality of instruction, the formats in which faculty prefer to be trained, and whether or not current online instructors believe training should be required prior to instructing online. Through this study the researcher attempts to address these issues by quantitatively assessing the beliefs of current online instructors" (Ray, 2009, p. 263).
The research questions she sought to answer all centered on the perceived training necessary during the transition to online teaching from traditional face-to-face courses, and included:
"How difficult is it for faculty to convert a course from face-to-face to totally online? ...
"Would faculty like additional training opportunities (technical and/or pedagogical) pertaining to online instruction and in what format(s)? ...
Who is providing formal training to faculty currently instructing online? ...
Do current online instructors believe that technical and/or pedagogical training should be
required prior to instructing online? " (Ray, 2009, p. 263).
In her literature review, Hite noted, "Unlike teaching face-to-face where instructors may lack technical knowledge and still effectively teach students, in the arena of distance education, educators must possess a thorough understanding of technology as well as the subject matter expertise required in the traditional classroom (Darabi, Sikorski, & Harvey, 2006). Aside from the obvious technical challenges associated with developing a course in the online medium, researchers indicate a need for additional faculty training specifically focusing on the different methods of instruction and pedagogy necessary to facilitate and instruct a successful online course (Diaz & Bontenbal, 2000; Arabasz, Pirani, & Fawcett, 2003; Okojie, Olinzock, & Okojie-Boulder, 2006). Her literature review addressed many other issues surrounding online teaching perceptions and circumstances.
111 instructors of 300 responded to the survey. Their opinions supported other studies of instructor perceptions about the difficulty of transferring courses from traditional to online formats, a desire for technological and pedagogical training, a significant lack of training, and even a desire to require such training before the instructors engage in the endeavor.
Summary and Citations:
Ray's "study investigates the perceptions of faculty currently facilitating instruction in the online environment. Although studies exist focusing on instructors’ satisfaction with instructing in the online format (Awalt, 2003; Conrad, 2004; Dolloph, 2004; Luck & McQuiggan, 2006; Wang, MacArthur, Crosby, 2003; Wilkes, Simon, Brooks, 2006), additional research focusing on faculty perspectives represents an important aspect of gaining a thorough understanding of the online format from a research standpoint. For example, current research fails to adequately scrutinize the difficulty associated with taking a face-to-face course and moving it to the online format, the perceived effects of technical and pedagogical training on the quality of instruction, the formats in which faculty prefer to be trained, and whether or not current online instructors believe training should be required prior to instructing online. Through this study the researcher attempts to address these issues by quantitatively assessing the beliefs of current online instructors" (Ray, 2009, p. 263).
The research questions she sought to answer all centered on the perceived training necessary during the transition to online teaching from traditional face-to-face courses, and included:
"How difficult is it for faculty to convert a course from face-to-face to totally online? ...
"Would faculty like additional training opportunities (technical and/or pedagogical) pertaining to online instruction and in what format(s)? ...
Who is providing formal training to faculty currently instructing online? ...
Do current online instructors believe that technical and/or pedagogical training should be
required prior to instructing online? " (Ray, 2009, p. 263).
In her literature review, Hite noted, "Unlike teaching face-to-face where instructors may lack technical knowledge and still effectively teach students, in the arena of distance education, educators must possess a thorough understanding of technology as well as the subject matter expertise required in the traditional classroom (Darabi, Sikorski, & Harvey, 2006). Aside from the obvious technical challenges associated with developing a course in the online medium, researchers indicate a need for additional faculty training specifically focusing on the different methods of instruction and pedagogy necessary to facilitate and instruct a successful online course (Diaz & Bontenbal, 2000; Arabasz, Pirani, & Fawcett, 2003; Okojie, Olinzock, & Okojie-Boulder, 2006). Her literature review addressed many other issues surrounding online teaching perceptions and circumstances.
111 instructors of 300 responded to the survey. Their opinions supported other studies of instructor perceptions about the difficulty of transferring courses from traditional to online formats, a desire for technological and pedagogical training, a significant lack of training, and even a desire to require such training before the instructors engage in the endeavor.
Welch, A. G., Napoleon, L., Hill, B., & Roumell, E. (2014). Virtual Teaching Dispositions Scale (VTDS): A Multi-dimensional Instrument to Assess Teaching Dispositions in Virtual Classrooms. Journal of Online Learning & Teaching, 10(3).
Category: Technology, Research Methods, Theory & Rhetoric, Communication Design
Summary:
The authors set out to create an instrument for measuring instructors to determine if they are predisposed on teaching online. Their resulting instrument contained four factors, and 25 criteria:
"Factor 1: Social Presence
Summary:
The authors set out to create an instrument for measuring instructors to determine if they are predisposed on teaching online. Their resulting instrument contained four factors, and 25 criteria:
"Factor 1: Social Presence
- Social I am empathetic to the needs of my students.
- I relate with students as people.
- I am tactful with students in emotionally stressful situations.
- I am flexible in dealing with students' needs (due dates, absences,etc.).
- I try to establish a welcoming learning environment.
- I understand the needs of my students.
- I adapt well in online delivery formats.
- I maintain genuine and meaningful contact in online formats.
- I project interpersonal skills in the online environment.
- I strive to continually improve performance in the online classroom.
- I maintain a highly visible presence in online formats.
- I am intrinsically motivated to master new information technology.
- I utilize new technologies to enhance learning.
- I communicate comfortably almost entirely through writing.
- I respond to student inquiries in a timely manner.
- I return work to students promptly.
- I create a schedule and stick to it. Pedagogical I am organized. I communicate clearly and effectively in writing.
- I demonstrate commitment to academic expertise.
- I have a passion for education.
I make content meaningful for the learner. - I anchor learning strategies in the context of my subject matter.
I adapt learning strategies within the context of my subject matter. - I am very knowledgeable in my content area" (Welch, Napoleon, Hill, & Roumell, 2014, p. 457).
Tuesday, February 24, 2015
Lloyd, S. A., Byrne, M. M., & McCoy, T. S. (2012). Faculty-perceived barriers of online education. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 8(1), 1-12.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
"This study sought to identify the most prevalent barriers to online instruction for the faculty" (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, p. 1) at a southeastern university in the United States. The results came from a survey group of 75 faculty members. They found that those with experience in online education were less resistant to teaching online courses.
The insights from their literature review are particularly helpful for those researching this field:
"The fact that experience with and the degree of experience with online education breaks down barriers to education is not thoroughly addressed elsewhere in the literature (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, p. 8).
"Of the eight conditions that facilitate faculty involvement in online education identified by Ely (1999), the three conditions that are perceived by faculty to have the greatest impact on the implementation of new online programs include adequate institutional resources, appropriate knowledge and skills, and a general dissatisfaction with the status quo (Ensminger & Surry, 2002). Instructors' willingness to participate in distance education is positively impacted by increased training, an expectation of high student evaluation scores, and comfort with the technology, while negatively impacted by communication issues such as lack of visual cues and other forms of social contact (Lee & Busch, 2005). However, faculty-perceived barriers to teaching online also include: a lack of compensation for time and class sizes; added responsibilities; inability to grasp visual cues from students; concerns about the quality of the content; concerns about the ownership of courses developed; inadequate training and resources; increased workload; the value toward promotion and tenure; a lack of administrative and technical support; a lack of experience with online teaching; and a change in the faculty's institutional role (Bower, 2001; Haber & Mills, 2008; Johnson, 2008; Lyons, 2004; Panda & Mishra, 2007; Ryan, Hodson-Carlton, & Ali, 2004, 2005; Schifter, 2002; Seaman, 2009; Shea, 2007; Singh & Pan, 2004). Maguire (2005) identified additional barriers, which include: increased workload that deterred from research time; lack of recognition in both the area of tenure and promotion and equality in regards to face-to-face instruction; and a lack of monetary compensation for developing or teaching online courses. Faculty were also concerned about lack of standards in online education, the impact that the online atmosphere would have on job security, and the quality of instruction" (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, p. 2).
"In an attempt to reconcile the broad-based literature that identifies various individual barriers to online education, Muilenburg and Berge (2001, 2005) developed a comprehensive framework of barrier categories through factor analysis. They identified 10 constructs that incorporate barriers to online education and which form the basis for their framework. While this framework proves useful in reducing and combining variables into meaningful constructs so as to test individual differences, it was written to be inclusive of the perspective of distance education institutions, users, developers, policymakers, trainers, and instructors, and has been used to this end (see Cho & Berge, 2002; Muilenberg & Berge, 2005). However, it is not clear whether perceived barriers to online teaching vary among faculty groups and what role previous experience with online education might have on faculty perceptions, which has obvious implications on training and implementation strategies at institutions of higher learning (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, pp. 2-3).
This study directly reflects teacher perceptions, but the focus is primarily on getting instructors to overcome their hesitations about online learning.
Summary and Citations:
"This study sought to identify the most prevalent barriers to online instruction for the faculty" (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, p. 1) at a southeastern university in the United States. The results came from a survey group of 75 faculty members. They found that those with experience in online education were less resistant to teaching online courses.
The insights from their literature review are particularly helpful for those researching this field:
"The fact that experience with and the degree of experience with online education breaks down barriers to education is not thoroughly addressed elsewhere in the literature (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, p. 8).
"Of the eight conditions that facilitate faculty involvement in online education identified by Ely (1999), the three conditions that are perceived by faculty to have the greatest impact on the implementation of new online programs include adequate institutional resources, appropriate knowledge and skills, and a general dissatisfaction with the status quo (Ensminger & Surry, 2002). Instructors' willingness to participate in distance education is positively impacted by increased training, an expectation of high student evaluation scores, and comfort with the technology, while negatively impacted by communication issues such as lack of visual cues and other forms of social contact (Lee & Busch, 2005). However, faculty-perceived barriers to teaching online also include: a lack of compensation for time and class sizes; added responsibilities; inability to grasp visual cues from students; concerns about the quality of the content; concerns about the ownership of courses developed; inadequate training and resources; increased workload; the value toward promotion and tenure; a lack of administrative and technical support; a lack of experience with online teaching; and a change in the faculty's institutional role (Bower, 2001; Haber & Mills, 2008; Johnson, 2008; Lyons, 2004; Panda & Mishra, 2007; Ryan, Hodson-Carlton, & Ali, 2004, 2005; Schifter, 2002; Seaman, 2009; Shea, 2007; Singh & Pan, 2004). Maguire (2005) identified additional barriers, which include: increased workload that deterred from research time; lack of recognition in both the area of tenure and promotion and equality in regards to face-to-face instruction; and a lack of monetary compensation for developing or teaching online courses. Faculty were also concerned about lack of standards in online education, the impact that the online atmosphere would have on job security, and the quality of instruction" (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, p. 2).
"In an attempt to reconcile the broad-based literature that identifies various individual barriers to online education, Muilenburg and Berge (2001, 2005) developed a comprehensive framework of barrier categories through factor analysis. They identified 10 constructs that incorporate barriers to online education and which form the basis for their framework. While this framework proves useful in reducing and combining variables into meaningful constructs so as to test individual differences, it was written to be inclusive of the perspective of distance education institutions, users, developers, policymakers, trainers, and instructors, and has been used to this end (see Cho & Berge, 2002; Muilenberg & Berge, 2005). However, it is not clear whether perceived barriers to online teaching vary among faculty groups and what role previous experience with online education might have on faculty perceptions, which has obvious implications on training and implementation strategies at institutions of higher learning (Lloyd, Byrne, & McCoy, 2012, pp. 2-3).
This study directly reflects teacher perceptions, but the focus is primarily on getting instructors to overcome their hesitations about online learning.
Hartman, S. J., & DeMatteis, M. J. (2008). An Investigation of Faculty and Student Experiences and the Move to Online Learning Following Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 4(1), 1-13.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
In addition to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina, this natural disaster created an educational crisis for the University of New Orleans. This paper study presented online education as a method of dealing with institutional crisis. The University officials relocated to Baton Rouge following the disaster and decided to use online education as a means for meeting the school's needs in the wake of the disaster. This paper shared the ancidotal experiences of teachers and students from UNO's business school during an immediate, emergency shift to online education using the Blackboard learning management software.
Though offering online courses helped student continue their schooling, regain some normalcy in their life, and move past the disaster, the shift created stress for instructors and administrators. Those involved had never created an online course, and faced many of the difficulties those who embark in such an endeavor experience without training or knowledge of best practices. The commercial course management software facilitated this possibility, without it, they would not have been able to move forward with their courses. They were highly complimentary of the Blackboard LMS and the administration's choice to immediately shift to online education.
Summary and Citations:
In addition to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina, this natural disaster created an educational crisis for the University of New Orleans. This paper study presented online education as a method of dealing with institutional crisis. The University officials relocated to Baton Rouge following the disaster and decided to use online education as a means for meeting the school's needs in the wake of the disaster. This paper shared the ancidotal experiences of teachers and students from UNO's business school during an immediate, emergency shift to online education using the Blackboard learning management software.
Though offering online courses helped student continue their schooling, regain some normalcy in their life, and move past the disaster, the shift created stress for instructors and administrators. Those involved had never created an online course, and faced many of the difficulties those who embark in such an endeavor experience without training or knowledge of best practices. The commercial course management software facilitated this possibility, without it, they would not have been able to move forward with their courses. They were highly complimentary of the Blackboard LMS and the administration's choice to immediately shift to online education.
Monday, February 23, 2015
Hall Jr, O. P. (2013). Assessing faculty attitudes toward technological change in graduate management education. Journal of Online Learning & Teaching, 9(1), 39-51.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
Hall's paper shared the results of a survey of 61 faculty member's perceptions about the learning technologies used in graduate management education. The study spent a significant amount of time promoting a "two-stage variable classification methodology based on neural nets and CART" (Hall, 2013, p. 48).
The results of the instructor perceptions survey boils down to recognizing that some faculty
adapted with the instructional shift, adopting the new technologies, and other resisted the change. The results supported theories and speculation about this in other literature.
Summary and Citations:
Hall's paper shared the results of a survey of 61 faculty member's perceptions about the learning technologies used in graduate management education. The study spent a significant amount of time promoting a "two-stage variable classification methodology based on neural nets and CART" (Hall, 2013, p. 48).
The results of the instructor perceptions survey boils down to recognizing that some faculty
adapted with the instructional shift, adopting the new technologies, and other resisted the change. The results supported theories and speculation about this in other literature.
Goldman, Z. (2012). Online MBA Asynchronous Discussion Workload and Value Perceptions for Instructors and Learners: Working Toward an Integrated Educational Model for Professional Adults. Journal of Online Teaching and Learning, 8(3), 174-188.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Subject and Citations:
How much value does an asynchronous discussion bring when considering time requirements? Goldman's study sought for perceptions of both teachers and students in his study of 72 instructors and 280 learners in an MBA program at Post University in Waterbury, Connecticut. "Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and covariance/correlation analysis were employed to explore the load and value perceptions of learners and instructors as well as to present the results" (Goldman, 2012, p. 175). The results were presented in well-designed correlation matrices, charts and graphs.
The quantitative study's resulted by affirming two hypotheses, and rejecting one:
"1) Discussion did become the major engagement conduit for learners and instructors, consuming 55% and 65% of their total course hours, respectively. This was affirmed across all course levels throughout the program with the exception of the Capstone Writing course in which learners focused on developing and writing their projects.
"2) For both learners and instructors, discussion load perceptions were centered around "medium" (on a scale of "no load" to "very heavy" load) and value perceptions of learners and instructors were centered around "high" (on a scale of "no value" to "very high" value). This was affirmed for learners and instructors across all course levels throughout the program.
"3) The hypothesis that the value perception for discussion could be gauged and predicted by measuring the hours spent on discussion could not be affirmed and was rejected. No substantive associations were found for learners or instructors between hours spent and value perception for either course or discussion" (Goldman, 2012, p. 182).
The study seemed to support the idea that the value of the time necessary for asynchronous discussions was worth the engagement. The results focused on the perceptions about the time requirements and value, not the emotions and concerns of the faculty, which still appears to be a significant gap in the research.
Subject and Citations:
How much value does an asynchronous discussion bring when considering time requirements? Goldman's study sought for perceptions of both teachers and students in his study of 72 instructors and 280 learners in an MBA program at Post University in Waterbury, Connecticut. "Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and covariance/correlation analysis were employed to explore the load and value perceptions of learners and instructors as well as to present the results" (Goldman, 2012, p. 175). The results were presented in well-designed correlation matrices, charts and graphs.
The quantitative study's resulted by affirming two hypotheses, and rejecting one:
"1) Discussion did become the major engagement conduit for learners and instructors, consuming 55% and 65% of their total course hours, respectively. This was affirmed across all course levels throughout the program with the exception of the Capstone Writing course in which learners focused on developing and writing their projects.
"2) For both learners and instructors, discussion load perceptions were centered around "medium" (on a scale of "no load" to "very heavy" load) and value perceptions of learners and instructors were centered around "high" (on a scale of "no value" to "very high" value). This was affirmed for learners and instructors across all course levels throughout the program.
"3) The hypothesis that the value perception for discussion could be gauged and predicted by measuring the hours spent on discussion could not be affirmed and was rejected. No substantive associations were found for learners or instructors between hours spent and value perception for either course or discussion" (Goldman, 2012, p. 182).
The study seemed to support the idea that the value of the time necessary for asynchronous discussions was worth the engagement. The results focused on the perceptions about the time requirements and value, not the emotions and concerns of the faculty, which still appears to be a significant gap in the research.
Saturday, February 21, 2015
De Gagne, J. C., & Walters, K. J. (2010). The lived experience of online educators: Hermeneutic phenomenology. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(2), 357-366.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
De Gagne and Walters surveyed eleven online educators throughout the United States to learn more about their experiences with online education. They asked the following questions:
"RQ1. What concepts do online educators think are important in teaching online?
RQ2. What knowledge, skills, and attitudes do they perceive as essential in teaching online?
RQ3. What differences in terms of faculty role do they perceive between face-to-face instruction
and online teaching?
RQ4. What strategies do they use to facilitate active learning?
RQ5. What ethical and legal issues do they face in online teaching?
RQ6. What do they think academic leaders can do to help them achieve successful online
teaching?" (De Gagne & Walters, 2010, p. 358).
They then used rhetorical analysis, specifically the hermeneutic approach, to understand the instructor's perspective from the recorded interviews. By examining the the interviews, "five key themes emerged from11 respondents’ narrative accounts, including: (a) flexibility and convenience, (b) time- and labor-intensiveness, (c) communication skills, (d) learner-centeredness, and (e) continuing education and training. These identified themes were important in illustrating online educators’ experiences, which provided new perspectives and recommendations for the development and promotion of successful communities of online learning" (De Gagne & Walters, 2010, p. 357). Part of these insights included a perceived shift in power in the online teaching experience where instructors noticed the need for students to fulfill greater rolls and responsibilities.
This well-crafted study shared the perspectives of 12 online teachers, and helped us understand their beliefs about online education and best practices. It also revealed some opportunities for future research, specifically, "(1) This study suggests that faculty’s knowledge level about legal issues related to online teaching appears to be narrow or limited. Interviews with a larger population about specific legal-related questions should be conducted to fully explore the degree of the knowledge gap. (2) This study determined what knowledge, skills, and attitudes are considered important to online teaching, but it did not specifically address how important these aspects are for teachers who make the transition to online learning. 3. Similar research should be conducted with online students as the target population to determine if their perceptions are aligned with the areas identified in this study by the online educators" (De Gagne & Walters, 2010, p. 365).
Summary and Citations:
De Gagne and Walters surveyed eleven online educators throughout the United States to learn more about their experiences with online education. They asked the following questions:
"RQ1. What concepts do online educators think are important in teaching online?
RQ2. What knowledge, skills, and attitudes do they perceive as essential in teaching online?
RQ3. What differences in terms of faculty role do they perceive between face-to-face instruction
and online teaching?
RQ4. What strategies do they use to facilitate active learning?
RQ5. What ethical and legal issues do they face in online teaching?
RQ6. What do they think academic leaders can do to help them achieve successful online
teaching?" (De Gagne & Walters, 2010, p. 358).
They then used rhetorical analysis, specifically the hermeneutic approach, to understand the instructor's perspective from the recorded interviews. By examining the the interviews, "five key themes emerged from11 respondents’ narrative accounts, including: (a) flexibility and convenience, (b) time- and labor-intensiveness, (c) communication skills, (d) learner-centeredness, and (e) continuing education and training. These identified themes were important in illustrating online educators’ experiences, which provided new perspectives and recommendations for the development and promotion of successful communities of online learning" (De Gagne & Walters, 2010, p. 357). Part of these insights included a perceived shift in power in the online teaching experience where instructors noticed the need for students to fulfill greater rolls and responsibilities.
This well-crafted study shared the perspectives of 12 online teachers, and helped us understand their beliefs about online education and best practices. It also revealed some opportunities for future research, specifically, "(1) This study suggests that faculty’s knowledge level about legal issues related to online teaching appears to be narrow or limited. Interviews with a larger population about specific legal-related questions should be conducted to fully explore the degree of the knowledge gap. (2) This study determined what knowledge, skills, and attitudes are considered important to online teaching, but it did not specifically address how important these aspects are for teachers who make the transition to online learning. 3. Similar research should be conducted with online students as the target population to determine if their perceptions are aligned with the areas identified in this study by the online educators" (De Gagne & Walters, 2010, p. 365).
Batts, D. (2008). Comparison of student and instructor perceptions of best practices in online technology courses. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 4(4), 477-489.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary and Citations:
Batts' study investigated student and instructor perceptions of Chickering & Gamson's (1987) principles of good practice in undergraduate education.
"The Seven Principles assert that good practice in undergraduate education (a) encourages student faculty contact, (b) encourages cooperation among students, (c) encourages active learning, (d) gives prompt feedback, (e) emphasizes time on task, (f) communicates high expectations, and (g) respects diverse talents and ways of learning (Chickering & Gamson, 1987)" (Batts, 2008, p. 477).
Batts modifed the Online Teaching Practices survey developed by Taylor (2002) and administered to six instructors and 93 students. Both students and instructors felt that two of the seven were successfully employed in the classroom, with the other five being partially employed.
Batts succeeded in measuring and reporting the results of this quantitative study, yet the scope of the study did aim to truly measure teacher perceptions about online teaching, it measured perceptions of how well best practices in online teaching were employed.
Summary and Citations:
Batts' study investigated student and instructor perceptions of Chickering & Gamson's (1987) principles of good practice in undergraduate education.
"The Seven Principles assert that good practice in undergraduate education (a) encourages student faculty contact, (b) encourages cooperation among students, (c) encourages active learning, (d) gives prompt feedback, (e) emphasizes time on task, (f) communicates high expectations, and (g) respects diverse talents and ways of learning (Chickering & Gamson, 1987)" (Batts, 2008, p. 477).
Batts modifed the Online Teaching Practices survey developed by Taylor (2002) and administered to six instructors and 93 students. Both students and instructors felt that two of the seven were successfully employed in the classroom, with the other five being partially employed.
Batts succeeded in measuring and reporting the results of this quantitative study, yet the scope of the study did aim to truly measure teacher perceptions about online teaching, it measured perceptions of how well best practices in online teaching were employed.
Friday, February 20, 2015
McCartney, R., Weiner, B., & Wurst, K. R. (1997, November). Delivering a lab course in a web-based learning environment. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change. Proceedings. (Vol. 2, pp. 849-855). IEEE.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary:
McCartney, Weiner, and Wurst provided a snapshot of some of the concerns about web-based instruction in its formative years. Their questions help us recognize the evolution of HTML instruction. Modern technology and course delivery systems changed and have addressed each of the concerns listed below.
Citations:
"Using the Web for presentation of material has some significant disadvantages relative to the more standard approach...
Summary:
McCartney, Weiner, and Wurst provided a snapshot of some of the concerns about web-based instruction in its formative years. Their questions help us recognize the evolution of HTML instruction. Modern technology and course delivery systems changed and have addressed each of the concerns listed below.
Citations:
"Using the Web for presentation of material has some significant disadvantages relative to the more standard approach...
- Working without access to an instructor means there is no one there to answer questions or provide feedback on student's work.
- It is easy to get 'lost' in hypertext: the no-sequential structure can make it hard to find information, and hard to tell if one has read sufficient information.
- There is a lack of the social interaction with peers that normall occurs in a laboratory, espectially hard if teamwork is one of the instructional goals.
- There is significant overhead in preparing the lab materials for presentation on the Web..." (McCartney, Weiner, & Wurst, 1997, p. 849).
Thursday, February 19, 2015
Martindale, M. J. (1993). Mental Models and Text Schemas: Why Computer Based Tutorials Should Be Considered a Communication Medium. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 20(4), 107-12.
Categories: Communication Design, Theory & Rhetoric, Technology
Summary & Citation:
Martindale's dissertation, of which this article was based on the first chapter, made the contribution of questioning the importance of the medium over the text in computer-based tutorials. Twenty-two years later, related problems with the importance of design over content still plague the internet, distance education, and digital learning.
"This argument suggests that designers and researchers of computer-based tutorials (CBTs) should pay less attention to computers and more to communication. That is, while HCI research has its place, understanding how to communicate information in ways that students can understand is more important to the design of effective instruction" (Martindale, 1993, p. 110).
Summary & Citation:
Martindale's dissertation, of which this article was based on the first chapter, made the contribution of questioning the importance of the medium over the text in computer-based tutorials. Twenty-two years later, related problems with the importance of design over content still plague the internet, distance education, and digital learning.
"This argument suggests that designers and researchers of computer-based tutorials (CBTs) should pay less attention to computers and more to communication. That is, while HCI research has its place, understanding how to communicate information in ways that students can understand is more important to the design of effective instruction" (Martindale, 1993, p. 110).
Hawley III, J. A., & Crynes, B. L. (1997, November). Stimulating development of technology based teaching/learning modules through a technical elective. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change. Proceedings. (Vol. 3, pp. 1399-1401). IEEE.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary and Citation:
The University of Oklahoma took a unique approach to help faculty use technology to deliver better tradition, online, and distance education courses. They "created a special three-credit hour elective technical elective called 'Design and Engineering Interactive Presentations' (ENGR 4510)" (Hawley & Crynes, 1997, p. 1399). in this course, student helped faculty improve curricula for other courses. Students would find and work with a faculty member to create a technology-mediated learning modules and/or presentations.
The faculty found this approach highly effective and the student responses from the first years of the program were positive. It is surprising this has not become more commonplace throughout education. Perhaps our current tools are so effective that the time element of creation is not enough to merit a course, or perhaps teaching and research assistants have and can fulfill this role without the challenges of creating and managing an accredited course.
Summary and Citation:
The University of Oklahoma took a unique approach to help faculty use technology to deliver better tradition, online, and distance education courses. They "created a special three-credit hour elective technical elective called 'Design and Engineering Interactive Presentations' (ENGR 4510)" (Hawley & Crynes, 1997, p. 1399). in this course, student helped faculty improve curricula for other courses. Students would find and work with a faculty member to create a technology-mediated learning modules and/or presentations.
The faculty found this approach highly effective and the student responses from the first years of the program were positive. It is surprising this has not become more commonplace throughout education. Perhaps our current tools are so effective that the time element of creation is not enough to merit a course, or perhaps teaching and research assistants have and can fulfill this role without the challenges of creating and managing an accredited course.
Wednesday, February 18, 2015
Hailey, C. E., & Hailey, D. E. (2003). How genre choices effect learning in a digital environment. Journal of Engineering Education, 92(4), 287-294.
Categories: Theory & Rhetoric, Communication Design, Technology
Summary:
Hailey and Hailey were among the first to notice the contradiction of studies indicating that media "had no influence" on learning, and the anecdotal and experiential indicators from instructors that working with technology actually created many differences. They identified the problem being one stemming from genre, not from the media. By separating the definitions of media (the manner the content is delivered) and genre (the module that houses structured content, the authors furthered the discussion of some of the difficulties of online and distance learning.
This article demonstrated an small, but significant evolution of Genre theory in distance education, that would later continue to the most recent understandings available in Hailey's 2014 book ReaderCentric writing for digital media: Theory and practice. (See review here.)
Summary:
Hailey and Hailey were among the first to notice the contradiction of studies indicating that media "had no influence" on learning, and the anecdotal and experiential indicators from instructors that working with technology actually created many differences. They identified the problem being one stemming from genre, not from the media. By separating the definitions of media (the manner the content is delivered) and genre (the module that houses structured content, the authors furthered the discussion of some of the difficulties of online and distance learning.
This article demonstrated an small, but significant evolution of Genre theory in distance education, that would later continue to the most recent understandings available in Hailey's 2014 book ReaderCentric writing for digital media: Theory and practice. (See review here.)
Tuesday, February 17, 2015
Montgomery, S., & Fogler, H. S. (1996). Selecting Computer‐Aided Instructional Software. Journal of Engineering Education, 85(1), 53-60.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary and Citations:
Montgomery and Fogler provide a heuristic for selecting instructional software. They recommended asking:
Summary and Citations:
Montgomery and Fogler provide a heuristic for selecting instructional software. They recommended asking:
- What are the intended roles of the software?
- What thinking skills is the software designed to challenge?
- What student learning styles does the software accommodate? (p. 53).
Flori, R. E. (1997). Perspectives on the role of educational technologies. Journal of Engineering Education, 86(3), 269-272.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology, Theory & Rhetoric
Summary:
Flori summarized and analyzed educational technologies using Perkins' five facets of learning environments. The five facets are:
Summary:
Flori summarized and analyzed educational technologies using Perkins' five facets of learning environments. The five facets are:
- Information Banks - sources that allow access to information.
- Symbol Pads - a surface for the transmission of texts.
- Phenomenaria/Mircroworlds - "context which allows students to make connections between abstract representations and real-life phenomena" (p. 270).
- Construction Kits - activities involving kinesthetic (or in the case of distance education, simulated model) learning.
- Task Managers - an individual who facilitates learning and assessment.
Monday, February 16, 2015
Willis, B. D. (Ed.). (1994). Distance education: Strategies and tools. Educational Technology.
Categories: Technology, Theory & Rhetoric, Communication Design
Summary:
Released in 1994, the book was likely one of the better resources on the subject. In our current environment, it is most helpful in its research on the history of distance education.
Citation-worthy:
"Itinerant wanderers delivering information by word of mouth were perhaps the world's first distance educators bringing information from afar to eager recipients encouraged during their travels. This centuries old practice was irrevocably changed by the invention of writing and later, print. Print was first put to use in distance education with development of correspondence courses created by universities during the middle 800s to disseminate learning beyond the walls of existing institutions. Electronic technoloyg, beginning with radio broadcasting, brought a mass quality to learning at a distance in the early 1930s. Technology of information transfer has now outstripped the ability of educators and trainers to develop programs to serve the exponential increase in learners who wish to be education outside traditional place-bound learning sites (Willis, 1994, p. 5).
"Review of the distance education literature from 1960 to 1980 reveals an impressive growth curve attesting to an increasing body of knowledge throughout the world. Literature during this period was primarily descriptive, providing a balanced world view of problems and solutions in correspondence programs and the emerging area of distance education. ... Since 1980 the literature on distance education, open learning, and interactive technological learning interventions has burgeoned and has shown a bias toward the new and emerging technologies of distance learning with heavy emphasis on telecommunications driven advances in delivery methods" (Willis, 1994, p. 6).
"To classify agencies engaged in modern distance eduaction, one would have to look back at the early open learning institutions as forerunners of the current distance education movement" (Willis, 1994, p. 7).
"Keegan (1986) ... goes on to point out that improvement of distance education during the [19]70s can be attributed to:
"Whittington (1987) performed the most widely quoted review of research on instructional television. ... He reviewed studies done during the 1970s and 1980s and concluded the following:
"Althought live on-air interaction may not be important for student outcomes, it may be important as a consumer variable, a requisite condition sought by some learners--even if not used. Synchoronous interaction makes us feel more connectioned, a part of a 'class.' Live, interactive learning is what we are familiar with, it's 'school'" (Willis, 1994, p. 48).
"Media is a mere vehicle and successful learning comes from other factors related to learners, support, course design, motivation, and need. ... We may be moving toward the internalization of distance education, in which traditional institutions use multi-media technology to provide mainstream education to their regular students.
Summary:
Released in 1994, the book was likely one of the better resources on the subject. In our current environment, it is most helpful in its research on the history of distance education.
Citation-worthy:
"Itinerant wanderers delivering information by word of mouth were perhaps the world's first distance educators bringing information from afar to eager recipients encouraged during their travels. This centuries old practice was irrevocably changed by the invention of writing and later, print. Print was first put to use in distance education with development of correspondence courses created by universities during the middle 800s to disseminate learning beyond the walls of existing institutions. Electronic technoloyg, beginning with radio broadcasting, brought a mass quality to learning at a distance in the early 1930s. Technology of information transfer has now outstripped the ability of educators and trainers to develop programs to serve the exponential increase in learners who wish to be education outside traditional place-bound learning sites (Willis, 1994, p. 5).
"Review of the distance education literature from 1960 to 1980 reveals an impressive growth curve attesting to an increasing body of knowledge throughout the world. Literature during this period was primarily descriptive, providing a balanced world view of problems and solutions in correspondence programs and the emerging area of distance education. ... Since 1980 the literature on distance education, open learning, and interactive technological learning interventions has burgeoned and has shown a bias toward the new and emerging technologies of distance learning with heavy emphasis on telecommunications driven advances in delivery methods" (Willis, 1994, p. 6).
"To classify agencies engaged in modern distance eduaction, one would have to look back at the early open learning institutions as forerunners of the current distance education movement" (Willis, 1994, p. 7).
"Keegan (1986) ... goes on to point out that improvement of distance education during the [19]70s can be attributed to:
- the development of new communications technology;
- sophistication in the use of print materials;
- improved design of instructional materials;
- better support services for students;
- the founding of the Open University... and similar structures in developed and developing countries" (Willis, 1994, p. 8).
"Whittington (1987) performed the most widely quoted review of research on instructional television. ... He reviewed studies done during the 1970s and 1980s and concluded the following:
- Comparative studeies indicate that students taking courses via television achieve, in most cases, as well as students taking courses via traditional methods.
- Finds of equivalent students achievement hold even when rigorous methodological standards are applied.
- Television is a technological device for transmitting communication and has no intrinsic effect, for good or ill, on student achievement.
- Effective instructional design and techniques are the crucial element in student achievement whether instruction is delivered by television or by traditional means" (Willis, 1994, p. 43).
"Althought live on-air interaction may not be important for student outcomes, it may be important as a consumer variable, a requisite condition sought by some learners--even if not used. Synchoronous interaction makes us feel more connectioned, a part of a 'class.' Live, interactive learning is what we are familiar with, it's 'school'" (Willis, 1994, p. 48).
"Media is a mere vehicle and successful learning comes from other factors related to learners, support, course design, motivation, and need. ... We may be moving toward the internalization of distance education, in which traditional institutions use multi-media technology to provide mainstream education to their regular students.
Saturday, February 14, 2015
Meier, R. D. (1997, November). Good morning Cedar Rapids. Do you have audio? Reflections on teaching a university distance education course. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change. Proceedings. (Vol. 3, pp. 1469-1472). IEEE.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary & Citation:
Iowa State began offering distance eduation courses in 1996. This article is a brief reflections of an Iowa State University professor following his Computer Engineering course. The article's summary includes its primary points:
"I have found my distance class to be one of the most rewarding courses I have taught. The willingness of the dBSEE students to engage the environment and ask questions has re-established my faith in the educational process. I have not found the multimedia equipment to be negative in any way. On the contray, I believe that my teaching techniques have improved: I more effectively use the computer as a teaching tool, I am more aware of student demographics and learning needs, and I have developed a closer relationship to my students in the classroom as more attention is placed on instructor-student interaction. I also find the enthusiasm and creativity of the ... students refreshing. Most... really want to be in the classroom. Their inquisitiveness and hard work are rewarding benefits for the pains caused by the distance separating us" (Meier, 1997, p 1472).
Summary & Citation:
Iowa State began offering distance eduation courses in 1996. This article is a brief reflections of an Iowa State University professor following his Computer Engineering course. The article's summary includes its primary points:
"I have found my distance class to be one of the most rewarding courses I have taught. The willingness of the dBSEE students to engage the environment and ask questions has re-established my faith in the educational process. I have not found the multimedia equipment to be negative in any way. On the contray, I believe that my teaching techniques have improved: I more effectively use the computer as a teaching tool, I am more aware of student demographics and learning needs, and I have developed a closer relationship to my students in the classroom as more attention is placed on instructor-student interaction. I also find the enthusiasm and creativity of the ... students refreshing. Most... really want to be in the classroom. Their inquisitiveness and hard work are rewarding benefits for the pains caused by the distance separating us" (Meier, 1997, p 1472).
Southern Regional Education Board (2003). Essential principles of high-quality online teaching: Guidelines for evaluating K-12 online teachers. Atlanta, GA: SREB
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary:
The Southern Regional Education Board compiled a list of essential principles of high-quality online teaching for K-12 teachers. This paper reported their findings. They claim good teachers know their material and their students. Their definition comes painfully short on pedagogical approaches, but the paper attempts to alleviate some of that difficulty. They do provide a checklist (designed to address state and federal funding assessment) to determine if an online instructor meets criteria, somewhat meets criteria, or does not meet their expected criteria. The four-page checklist includes some objective measurements, but remained largely subjective it the approach and judgment.
Citation-Worthy:
"Students are more likely to succeed if the courses are highly interactive" (SREB, 2003, p. 2)
"This flexibility requires teachers as well as students to have excellent time-management skills. Online teachers need to respond to students’ questions and provide them with feedback on their work in a timely manner" (SREB, 2003, p. 2)
"High-quality online teachers know how to get students involved actively in their own learning. High-quality online courses require students to assume much more responsibility for their own learning than they would in traditional classrooms. These courses also require students to communicate more frequently with one another and with teachers than they would in traditional classrooms" (SREB, 2003, p. 2).
Summary:
The Southern Regional Education Board compiled a list of essential principles of high-quality online teaching for K-12 teachers. This paper reported their findings. They claim good teachers know their material and their students. Their definition comes painfully short on pedagogical approaches, but the paper attempts to alleviate some of that difficulty. They do provide a checklist (designed to address state and federal funding assessment) to determine if an online instructor meets criteria, somewhat meets criteria, or does not meet their expected criteria. The four-page checklist includes some objective measurements, but remained largely subjective it the approach and judgment.
Citation-Worthy:
"Students are more likely to succeed if the courses are highly interactive" (SREB, 2003, p. 2)
"This flexibility requires teachers as well as students to have excellent time-management skills. Online teachers need to respond to students’ questions and provide them with feedback on their work in a timely manner" (SREB, 2003, p. 2)
"High-quality online teachers know how to get students involved actively in their own learning. High-quality online courses require students to assume much more responsibility for their own learning than they would in traditional classrooms. These courses also require students to communicate more frequently with one another and with teachers than they would in traditional classrooms" (SREB, 2003, p. 2).
Randall, K., & McGuire, E. G. (1997, November). Innovations in a global distance education program. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change. Proceedings. (Vol. 1, pp. 339-342). IEEE.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary & Citations:
Randall and McGuire studied a large organization's global distance education program and reported on their findings. Their review of distance learning discussed: (1) PLATO, a commputer-assisted instruction (CAI) system that networked computers, (2) the advancement of email in academic settings at the beginning of the 1970s, (3) the computer conferencing systems "used for course activity and delivery" used by businesses then by schools, starting with Dartmouth's Intercultural Learning Network which linked k-12 students in San Diego and Alaska, then added other states before eventually involving schoolchildren in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Japan, and Israel (pp. 339-340).
"A summary of the benefits from distance education that [they observed included]:
Summary & Citations:
Randall and McGuire studied a large organization's global distance education program and reported on their findings. Their review of distance learning discussed: (1) PLATO, a commputer-assisted instruction (CAI) system that networked computers, (2) the advancement of email in academic settings at the beginning of the 1970s, (3) the computer conferencing systems "used for course activity and delivery" used by businesses then by schools, starting with Dartmouth's Intercultural Learning Network which linked k-12 students in San Diego and Alaska, then added other states before eventually involving schoolchildren in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Japan, and Israel (pp. 339-340).
"A summary of the benefits from distance education that [they observed included]:
- Students become more active and independent participants in their own education.
- Teachers focus on collaboration and group activities and their role changes to that of facilitator and mentor.
- Teachers can collaborate with each other more easily.
- Students can communicate and collaborate with their peers more easily.
- Access to resources greatly expands.
- High-quality educational offerings can be maintained and enhanced while budgets shrink" (Randall & McGuire, 1997, p. 341).
Needy, K. L., & Claus, J. M. (1997, November). Distance education: on the use of videoconferencing at the University of Pittsburgh. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change. Proceedings. (Vol. 2, pp. 593-597). IEEE.
Category: Technology
Summary:
Eighteen years after its original publication, the article is useful as a snapshot of early perspectives on videoconferencing and distance education at the time. They felt that "effective distance teaching and learning requires extra effort on the parts of the instructor and the students" (p. 595). The effort included earlier preparation of materials, technology, and familiarization with the tools of learning. They believed a system of active learning and student participation were the paramount points of focus for successful courses. The high costs of video-conferencing, now a relatively mute point, was also addressed in the paper.
Citation-worthy:
"'Distance education refers to all arrangements for providing instruction through print or electronic communications media to persona engaged in planned learning in a place or time different from that of the instructor' (Moore, 1996). This definition of distance education is consistent with the characteristics of ditance education identified by the American Council of Education: Physical and/or chronological separation between the learner and the instructor, among learners, adn/or between learners and learning resources:
Summary:
Eighteen years after its original publication, the article is useful as a snapshot of early perspectives on videoconferencing and distance education at the time. They felt that "effective distance teaching and learning requires extra effort on the parts of the instructor and the students" (p. 595). The effort included earlier preparation of materials, technology, and familiarization with the tools of learning. They believed a system of active learning and student participation were the paramount points of focus for successful courses. The high costs of video-conferencing, now a relatively mute point, was also addressed in the paper.
Citation-worthy:
"'Distance education refers to all arrangements for providing instruction through print or electronic communications media to persona engaged in planned learning in a place or time different from that of the instructor' (Moore, 1996). This definition of distance education is consistent with the characteristics of ditance education identified by the American Council of Education: Physical and/or chronological separation between the learner and the instructor, among learners, adn/or between learners and learning resources:
- Interaction between learner and instructor, and/or interaction among learners, is conducted through on or more media, and the use of electronic media is not necessarily required;
- the learning experience is approved and its quality is monitored by the learning provider;
- the learning experience is organized to increase learner control over the time, place, and pace of instruction; and
- the instructional process is supported by other learner services that also respond to the assumed separation between the learner and the learning provider" (Needy & Claus, 1997, p. 594).
Chandler, J. R., Fontenot, A. D., Hagler, M. O., & Marcy, W. M. (1999, November). Why the distinction between on-campus and distance learning is blurring. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1999. FIE'99. 29th Annual (Vol. 1, pp. 12A2-11). IEEE.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary and Citations:
These instructors at Texas Tech University, one of the early adopters of electronic distance learning, sought to learn "how to accomplish: dissemination to the student of the information that they are to learn during the course; communication to all students in the class answers to questions of common interest; administration of examinations; collection of student work; organization of the course; and motivation of the learners" (Chandler, Fontenot, Hagler, & Marcy, 1999, p. 12a2-11).
The engineering school developed a model for asynchronous course development including the following six steps: (1) Education research/model development to determine the best technologies for delivery; (2) Faculty training on the methods and technologies unique to distance education; (3) Course design where courses are converted to the digital model; (4) Implementation training for the faculty; (5) Course implementation when the materials a prepared and formatted; (6) Formative and summative evaluations to find areas for improvement (pp. 12a2-12-13).
"The ALN model developed for the graduate distance learning program in engineering at Texas Tech University:
Summary and Citations:
These instructors at Texas Tech University, one of the early adopters of electronic distance learning, sought to learn "how to accomplish: dissemination to the student of the information that they are to learn during the course; communication to all students in the class answers to questions of common interest; administration of examinations; collection of student work; organization of the course; and motivation of the learners" (Chandler, Fontenot, Hagler, & Marcy, 1999, p. 12a2-11).
The engineering school developed a model for asynchronous course development including the following six steps: (1) Education research/model development to determine the best technologies for delivery; (2) Faculty training on the methods and technologies unique to distance education; (3) Course design where courses are converted to the digital model; (4) Implementation training for the faculty; (5) Course implementation when the materials a prepared and formatted; (6) Formative and summative evaluations to find areas for improvement (pp. 12a2-12-13).
"The ALN model developed for the graduate distance learning program in engineering at Texas Tech University:
- offers flexibility in scheduling to both students and faculty,
- exploits the World Wide Web and the U. S. Mail to avoid costly video links and wired classrooms, and
- permits the incremental development of learning materials that benefit symbiotically both on-campus and distance learners" (Chandler, Fontenot, Hagler, & Marcy, 1999, p. 12a2-15).
Friday, February 13, 2015
Ory, J. C., & Bullock, C. (1997, November). Student use of and attitudes about on-campus ALN. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change. Proceedings. (Vol. 1, pp. 416-431). IEEE.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary:
The published results of the Sloan Center for Asynchronous Learning Environments end-of-course surveys for 1995. The researchers sought to learn about student experiences with, attitudes about, and the impact of asynchronous learning environments. Their findings were that most students:
Summary:
The published results of the Sloan Center for Asynchronous Learning Environments end-of-course surveys for 1995. The researchers sought to learn about student experiences with, attitudes about, and the impact of asynchronous learning environments. Their findings were that most students:
- Worked online about once a week.
- Completed homework electronically more than once a week.
- Used the web a few times a week to research homework.
- Did not take any on-line quizes or tests.
- Used public computers to access the Internet in the common areas of their residency hall.
- Only conferenced with their instructors.
- Found the conferencing software and the Internet easy to use.
- Enjoyed using the web and conference software
- Would probably take another course that used the Internet
- The Web and software either increased or had no effect on the quality or amount of interaction students had with their instructor.
- Felt the web and asynchronous learning network activities increased the amount they learned during a semester along with their motivation to learn.
- Felt that the digital course increased or had no effect on their familiarity with the web or computer conferencing (none felt it decreased).
Hislop, G. W. (1997, November). Evaluating an asynchronous graduate degree program. In Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change. Proceedings. (Vol. 1, pp. 437-440). IEEE.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary:
A reflective paper on the first two years of Drexel's fully asynchronous degree. A baseline knowledge text and post-course evaluation provided the core of the research that analyzed the quality of education, the cost value, and the quality of the experience. Hislop found that the strengths of the program and classes were convenience, access to the instructor, and collaborative learning. The weaknesses were a lack of face-to-face contact, a more difficult level of effort, and feelings of being inhibited in ALN discussions.
It is interesting to note how the general attitudes and experiences have changed as individuals have become more comfortable with technology, as Web 2.0 tools became commonplace, and as distance learning moved into the mainstream of education.
Citation-worthy:
"The hallmarks of the fully asynchronous degree are: (1) Students never gather for traditional face-to-face classes; (2) Students and faculty engage in an active learning experience by network; (3) The degree content and requirements are the same in both traditional and asynchronous offerings; (4) Students learn to work using tools and techniques of distributed work environments" (Hislop, 1997, p. 437).
Summary:
A reflective paper on the first two years of Drexel's fully asynchronous degree. A baseline knowledge text and post-course evaluation provided the core of the research that analyzed the quality of education, the cost value, and the quality of the experience. Hislop found that the strengths of the program and classes were convenience, access to the instructor, and collaborative learning. The weaknesses were a lack of face-to-face contact, a more difficult level of effort, and feelings of being inhibited in ALN discussions.
It is interesting to note how the general attitudes and experiences have changed as individuals have become more comfortable with technology, as Web 2.0 tools became commonplace, and as distance learning moved into the mainstream of education.
Citation-worthy:
"The hallmarks of the fully asynchronous degree are: (1) Students never gather for traditional face-to-face classes; (2) Students and faculty engage in an active learning experience by network; (3) The degree content and requirements are the same in both traditional and asynchronous offerings; (4) Students learn to work using tools and techniques of distributed work environments" (Hislop, 1997, p. 437).
Thursday, February 12, 2015
Pang, P., & Hung, D. W. (2001). Activity Theory as a Framework for Analyzing CBT and E-Learning Environments. Educational Technology, 41(4), 36-42.
Categories: Theory & Rhetoric, Technology, Communication Design, Research Methods
Summary:
Pang and Hung adapted an early iteration of activity theory to analyze digital learning. They established a foundation for future similar analyses with their ideas of using collaborative projects, mentoring, multiple perspectives, and peer teaching (they described as "contributing to other learners") to describe community. Their 'object(s)' in e-learning comprised the environment, motivational components, the use of media, personalization, and tone. Under the category of division of labor, they identified four critical skills necessary for e-learning: technology competence, proficiency in writing, teaching style, and fluency in web-based instructional strategies. They concluded that learning was "not a decontextualized activity that is separated from work. Rather, learning is a human activity that is deeply embedded in the social matrix of people and artifacts" (Pang & Hung, 2001, p. 42).
Citation-worthy:
"Activity Theory is a cross-disciplinary framework for studying different forms of human practices, factoring in the processes of context as developmental processes both at the individual and social levels at the same time, including the use of tools and artifacts (Kuutti, 1997). An 'activity' is undertaken by human actors motivated towards an object (or goal) and mediated by tools and the community. Activities are distinguished from each other according to their objects. It is the transformation of the object into an outcome that motivates the execution of an activity (Hung & Wong, 2000). ... In essence, tools mediate the processes between subject and object; rules mediate the processes between subject and community; and division of labor mediates the processes between community and object" (Pang & Hung, 2001, p. 36).
Summary:
Pang and Hung adapted an early iteration of activity theory to analyze digital learning. They established a foundation for future similar analyses with their ideas of using collaborative projects, mentoring, multiple perspectives, and peer teaching (they described as "contributing to other learners") to describe community. Their 'object(s)' in e-learning comprised the environment, motivational components, the use of media, personalization, and tone. Under the category of division of labor, they identified four critical skills necessary for e-learning: technology competence, proficiency in writing, teaching style, and fluency in web-based instructional strategies. They concluded that learning was "not a decontextualized activity that is separated from work. Rather, learning is a human activity that is deeply embedded in the social matrix of people and artifacts" (Pang & Hung, 2001, p. 42).
Citation-worthy:
"Activity Theory is a cross-disciplinary framework for studying different forms of human practices, factoring in the processes of context as developmental processes both at the individual and social levels at the same time, including the use of tools and artifacts (Kuutti, 1997). An 'activity' is undertaken by human actors motivated towards an object (or goal) and mediated by tools and the community. Activities are distinguished from each other according to their objects. It is the transformation of the object into an outcome that motivates the execution of an activity (Hung & Wong, 2000). ... In essence, tools mediate the processes between subject and object; rules mediate the processes between subject and community; and division of labor mediates the processes between community and object" (Pang & Hung, 2001, p. 36).
Penfield, P., & Larson, R. C. (1996). Education via advanced technologies. Education, IEEE Transactions on, 39(3), 436-443.
Categories: Technology, Communcation Design
Summary:
Penfield and Larson presented a study of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's center for advanced technologies in education. They wrote about a fictional graduating class of 2014 describing the future of education and technology. Among the correct predictions were k-12, undergraduate, and Ph.D. programs being offered at distance, the idea of a blended course mixing both online or correspondence with traditional courses, and the replacement of blackboards as the primary visual medium by multimedia.
Citation-worthy:
"It is very likely that advanced technologies will change many aspects of higher education" (Penfield & Larson, 1996, p. 442).
Summary:
Penfield and Larson presented a study of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's center for advanced technologies in education. They wrote about a fictional graduating class of 2014 describing the future of education and technology. Among the correct predictions were k-12, undergraduate, and Ph.D. programs being offered at distance, the idea of a blended course mixing both online or correspondence with traditional courses, and the replacement of blackboards as the primary visual medium by multimedia.
Citation-worthy:
"It is very likely that advanced technologies will change many aspects of higher education" (Penfield & Larson, 1996, p. 442).
Hofstetter, F. T. (1994). Is multimedia the next literacy? Educator's Tech Exchange, 2(3), 6-13.
Categories: Technology
Summary:
Hofstetter proved to be correct in his prediction that multimedia literacy would be the next big skillset needed throughout the professional fields. Forward-thinking individuals, academic programs, and businesses recognized the need for such training and became early adapters of the various formats and skills he outlined.
Citation-worthy:
"Multimedia is redefining the communication system that forms the infrastructure of the society in which we work and live" (Hofstetter, 1994, p. 8).
"To state the need succinctly: Everyone who plans to function productively in twenty-first century society needs to know about multimedia" (Hofstetter, 1994, p. 12).
Summary:
Hofstetter proved to be correct in his prediction that multimedia literacy would be the next big skillset needed throughout the professional fields. Forward-thinking individuals, academic programs, and businesses recognized the need for such training and became early adapters of the various formats and skills he outlined.
Citation-worthy:
"Multimedia is redefining the communication system that forms the infrastructure of the society in which we work and live" (Hofstetter, 1994, p. 8).
"To state the need succinctly: Everyone who plans to function productively in twenty-first century society needs to know about multimedia" (Hofstetter, 1994, p. 12).
Moore, P. (1997). The best tech. writing program in the U.S? Technically Speaking: The News from the Arkansas chapter of the Society for Technical Communication. 1-3.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary:
Moore's article described the early years of technical communication degrees, and hypothesized that Utah State University's graduate technical communication / professional communication degree would be at the top of the list do to a variety of factors, including: the balance of career, skill, and theoretical learning, the high starting salaries for graduates, the multimedia design aspects, online components, use of technology, state of the art media lab, and real world project opportunities.
Afterward: Since U.S. News and world started tracking tech comm graduate degrees, the authur's sentiments have proven correct, as Utah State regularly ranks in the best programs in the nation in both Technical Communication and Education.
Summary:
Moore's article described the early years of technical communication degrees, and hypothesized that Utah State University's graduate technical communication / professional communication degree would be at the top of the list do to a variety of factors, including: the balance of career, skill, and theoretical learning, the high starting salaries for graduates, the multimedia design aspects, online components, use of technology, state of the art media lab, and real world project opportunities.
Afterward: Since U.S. News and world started tracking tech comm graduate degrees, the authur's sentiments have proven correct, as Utah State regularly ranks in the best programs in the nation in both Technical Communication and Education.
Wednesday, February 11, 2015
Boettger, R. K., & Palmer, L. A. (2010). Quantitative content analysis: Its use in technical communication. Professional Communication, IEEE Transactions on, 53(4), 346-357.
Category: Research Methods
Summary & Citations:
Boettger and Palmer's article sought to increase the use of quantitative content analysis in the field of technical communication. They suggested that, "Quantitative content analysis can prove to be a more powerful method than surveys and interviews because of its nonobtrusive nature and its lack of reliance on subjective perceptions" (Boettger & Palmer, 2010, p. 346). This can decrease the bias inherent in qualitative studies. After making a case for greater accuracy in our research, they outlined the fundamentals of content analysis, and its focus on "fixed characteristics" (p. 347). Their information was presented for those new to quantitative research and outlined the steps of such research.
They then provided a list of ideas for technical communicators to consider how they might used quantitative content analysis, it "can be used to:
• evaluate transcripts from usability studies to identify common mental models held by users;
• reveal differences in communication strategies for intercultural audiences;
• assess bias in publications produced by government at the federal, state, and local levels;
• codify the images used in marketing communications;
• locate intent in the annual reports produced by corporations;
• identify and deconstruct the rhetorical strategies from successfully funded proposals;
• assess how the rhetorical qualities and characteristics of environmental-impact statements have evolved since the signing of the Environmental Policy Act of 1969" (Boettger & Palmer, 2010, p. 348).
Their article continued by surveying the primary journals of the field; they found that only 5% of the articles researched contained quantitative research. Then they provided an example this research method in a study of sheep and goat farming.
Summary & Citations:
Boettger and Palmer's article sought to increase the use of quantitative content analysis in the field of technical communication. They suggested that, "Quantitative content analysis can prove to be a more powerful method than surveys and interviews because of its nonobtrusive nature and its lack of reliance on subjective perceptions" (Boettger & Palmer, 2010, p. 346). This can decrease the bias inherent in qualitative studies. After making a case for greater accuracy in our research, they outlined the fundamentals of content analysis, and its focus on "fixed characteristics" (p. 347). Their information was presented for those new to quantitative research and outlined the steps of such research.
They then provided a list of ideas for technical communicators to consider how they might used quantitative content analysis, it "can be used to:
• evaluate transcripts from usability studies to identify common mental models held by users;
• reveal differences in communication strategies for intercultural audiences;
• assess bias in publications produced by government at the federal, state, and local levels;
• codify the images used in marketing communications;
• locate intent in the annual reports produced by corporations;
• identify and deconstruct the rhetorical strategies from successfully funded proposals;
• assess how the rhetorical qualities and characteristics of environmental-impact statements have evolved since the signing of the Environmental Policy Act of 1969" (Boettger & Palmer, 2010, p. 348).
Their article continued by surveying the primary journals of the field; they found that only 5% of the articles researched contained quantitative research. Then they provided an example this research method in a study of sheep and goat farming.
Seaton, J. X. & Schwier, R. (2014). An exploratory case study of online instructors: Factors associated with instructor engagement. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Eduation. 29(1), 1-16.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary:
Seaton & Schwier noticed a gap in research pertaining to instructor engagement in online courses. Their article presented the results of a study looking for factors that positively and negatively affect faculty engagement. They aimed to measure the Community of Inquiry theory's social presence in online classrooms. Their study included twelve participants. They found that technological confidence did not predict higher engagement. They found that "those who were hired to teach and research were significanly less engaged than those who were hired only to teach" (Seaton & Schwier, 2014, p. 8). Due to the survey size, it was not possible to determine statistical significance for many of the research questions. Seaton & Schwier suggested that additional research should explore the correlary impact of technological confidence, research loads, feelings of isolation, lack of student social presence, and student engagement with instructor engagement.
Citation-worthy:
"The concept of engagement is based on the definition used by Schaufeli and his colleagues. Their definition incorporates behavioural, emotional, and cognitive aspects and focuses on vigor (investing high levels of energy in tasks), dedication (characterized by pride and a feeling that work is significant), and absorption (becoming engrossed in tasks). By this definition, engagement contrasts sharply with burnout which is characterized by exhaustion and cynicism (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002)" (Seaton & Schwier, 2014, p. 2).
Summary:
Seaton & Schwier noticed a gap in research pertaining to instructor engagement in online courses. Their article presented the results of a study looking for factors that positively and negatively affect faculty engagement. They aimed to measure the Community of Inquiry theory's social presence in online classrooms. Their study included twelve participants. They found that technological confidence did not predict higher engagement. They found that "those who were hired to teach and research were significanly less engaged than those who were hired only to teach" (Seaton & Schwier, 2014, p. 8). Due to the survey size, it was not possible to determine statistical significance for many of the research questions. Seaton & Schwier suggested that additional research should explore the correlary impact of technological confidence, research loads, feelings of isolation, lack of student social presence, and student engagement with instructor engagement.
Citation-worthy:
"The concept of engagement is based on the definition used by Schaufeli and his colleagues. Their definition incorporates behavioural, emotional, and cognitive aspects and focuses on vigor (investing high levels of energy in tasks), dedication (characterized by pride and a feeling that work is significant), and absorption (becoming engrossed in tasks). By this definition, engagement contrasts sharply with burnout which is characterized by exhaustion and cynicism (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002)" (Seaton & Schwier, 2014, p. 2).
Tuesday, February 10, 2015
Morgan, T. (2011). Online Classroom or Community-in-the-Making? Instructor Conceptualizations and Teaching Presence in International Online Contexts. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education, 25(1), reprint.
Categories: Communication Design, Theory & Rhetoric
Summary:
Morgan's award-winning article adapted "as a theoretical frame work to understand the why's of teaching presence, revealing a complex negotiation between instructors as subjects and the mediating components of the activity system" (Morgan, 2011, p. 1). The purpose of this approach provided the author the opportunity to assess and reflect on online teaching.
They found that the broad generalizations often given to online instructors from the Communities of Inquiry framework may ignore the situations, subjects, and circumstances of the wide variety of online courses. They conclude with an updated definition of teaching presence (see below).
Citation-Worthy:
"The predominant use of content analysis methods in COI and teaching presence research (c.f. Shea, Vickers, and Hayes, 2010, p. 130, for a summary of teaching presence research examining online discussions) has, for the most part, limited the focus to cataloguing and quantifying interactions, and has not taken a closer look at the contextual conditions in which presence take place. As a result, teaching recommendations are sometimes made that might not apply to diverse contexts. For example, Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000) recommend that discussion topics should last a week or two at the most in order to encourage deep reflection, and small groups should be used to provide greater opportunity for dialogue without producing too many message postings (p. 97). While this recommendation is certainly adopted in many online course designs, it is debateable whether or not it suits different kinds of teachers, students, courses, and online teaching and learning contexts" (Morgan, 2011, p. 2).
"The semantic value of a term such as “teaching presence” is that it provides the opportunity to go beyond notions of online teaching as facilitation: “guide on the side” or “sage on the stage”. However, the COI framework, as currently defined, limits the potential for understanding teaching presence as a much broader construct than descriptions of roles or teaching behaviours within an online context. When a sociocultural position is adopted, teaching presence could be defined as “the negotiation of instructor interactions within a mediated context with the object of attending to student learning”. Describing teaching presence as a negotiation within a mediated context requires a broader view of what instructors bring to the online context, how they position themselves and are positioned by others within it, and the components of the activity system that shape this negotiation. While COI research has been challenged to go in new directions (Garrison and Arbaugh, 2007) and a healthy debate has begun about its strengths and weaknesses (Rourke and Kanuka, 2009; Akyol et al, 2009; Jézégou, 2010), we are perhaps at a point where looking beyond the field of distance education will offer new approaches to understanding online teaching, and through the tensions of our own disciplinary activity systems, lead to transformations in our understanding" (Morgan, 2011, p. 9).
Summary:
Morgan's award-winning article adapted "as a theoretical frame work to understand the why's of teaching presence, revealing a complex negotiation between instructors as subjects and the mediating components of the activity system" (Morgan, 2011, p. 1). The purpose of this approach provided the author the opportunity to assess and reflect on online teaching.
They found that the broad generalizations often given to online instructors from the Communities of Inquiry framework may ignore the situations, subjects, and circumstances of the wide variety of online courses. They conclude with an updated definition of teaching presence (see below).
Citation-Worthy:
"The predominant use of content analysis methods in COI and teaching presence research (c.f. Shea, Vickers, and Hayes, 2010, p. 130, for a summary of teaching presence research examining online discussions) has, for the most part, limited the focus to cataloguing and quantifying interactions, and has not taken a closer look at the contextual conditions in which presence take place. As a result, teaching recommendations are sometimes made that might not apply to diverse contexts. For example, Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000) recommend that discussion topics should last a week or two at the most in order to encourage deep reflection, and small groups should be used to provide greater opportunity for dialogue without producing too many message postings (p. 97). While this recommendation is certainly adopted in many online course designs, it is debateable whether or not it suits different kinds of teachers, students, courses, and online teaching and learning contexts" (Morgan, 2011, p. 2).
"The semantic value of a term such as “teaching presence” is that it provides the opportunity to go beyond notions of online teaching as facilitation: “guide on the side” or “sage on the stage”. However, the COI framework, as currently defined, limits the potential for understanding teaching presence as a much broader construct than descriptions of roles or teaching behaviours within an online context. When a sociocultural position is adopted, teaching presence could be defined as “the negotiation of instructor interactions within a mediated context with the object of attending to student learning”. Describing teaching presence as a negotiation within a mediated context requires a broader view of what instructors bring to the online context, how they position themselves and are positioned by others within it, and the components of the activity system that shape this negotiation. While COI research has been challenged to go in new directions (Garrison and Arbaugh, 2007) and a healthy debate has begun about its strengths and weaknesses (Rourke and Kanuka, 2009; Akyol et al, 2009; Jézégou, 2010), we are perhaps at a point where looking beyond the field of distance education will offer new approaches to understanding online teaching, and through the tensions of our own disciplinary activity systems, lead to transformations in our understanding" (Morgan, 2011, p. 9).
Monday, February 9, 2015
Perry, E. H., & Pilati, M. L. (2011). Online learning. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2011(128), 95-104.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary:
The value in Perry and Pilati article is its brief history of Online Education. Their history, which does not necessarily agree with others who have endeavored in similar summaries, adds some perspective about the creation of the Internet:
"One of the major barriers to online learning is finding faculty members willing to learn a new way of teaching. According to Allen and Seaman (2010), fewer than one-third of chief academic officers surveyed believe their faculty accept the value and legitimacy of online education, and this fraction actually has fallen in the past two years. It is highest (44 percent) among academic officers at two-year institutions and lowest (11 percent) among those at baccalaureate colleges. Unfortunately,
there are faculty members who opt to teach online but do not invest time in, or are not provided with, the pedagogical and technological training necessary to maximize the online experience for both teachers and students" (Perry & Pilati, 2011, p. 101).
"Stewart, Bachman, and Johnson (2010) found that nearly 70 percent of faculty members surveyed felt online degrees are not so prestigious as those earned in face-to-face settings, and almost 50 percent felt students receiving online degrees would not have the same workforce opportunities as students who complete traditional degrees. Such perceptions are major impediments to the expansion of online learning" (Perry & Pilati, 2011, p. 101).
Summary:
The value in Perry and Pilati article is its brief history of Online Education. Their history, which does not necessarily agree with others who have endeavored in similar summaries, adds some perspective about the creation of the Internet:
- 1969 The Department of Defense brings about the Internet
- 1989 Tim Berners-Lee of the European Organization for Nuclear Research conceived the World Wide Web.
- 1991 Berners-Lee and a colleague introduce the Web to the rest of the world.
- 1993 A group at the University of Illinois launched Mosaic, a graphical Web browser.
- Ninetenth century: Correspondance courses delievered via mail.
- Mid-Twentieth Century: Educational television used technology to deliver educational programming.
- Mid-1990s, over a million students are engaged in online learning courses.
- Journal of Online Learning and Teaching (JOLT)
- American Journal of Distance Education (www.ajde.com)
- Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks (www.sloanconsortium.org
/publications/jaln_main) - Journal of Distance Education (www.jofde.ca/index.php/jde)
- Journal of Interactive Online Learning (www.ncolr.org/jiol/)
- Journal of Educators Online (www.thejeo.com)
- Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration (www.westga
.edu/~distance/ojdla/)
"One of the major barriers to online learning is finding faculty members willing to learn a new way of teaching. According to Allen and Seaman (2010), fewer than one-third of chief academic officers surveyed believe their faculty accept the value and legitimacy of online education, and this fraction actually has fallen in the past two years. It is highest (44 percent) among academic officers at two-year institutions and lowest (11 percent) among those at baccalaureate colleges. Unfortunately,
there are faculty members who opt to teach online but do not invest time in, or are not provided with, the pedagogical and technological training necessary to maximize the online experience for both teachers and students" (Perry & Pilati, 2011, p. 101).
"Stewart, Bachman, and Johnson (2010) found that nearly 70 percent of faculty members surveyed felt online degrees are not so prestigious as those earned in face-to-face settings, and almost 50 percent felt students receiving online degrees would not have the same workforce opportunities as students who complete traditional degrees. Such perceptions are major impediments to the expansion of online learning" (Perry & Pilati, 2011, p. 101).
Pringle, K., & Williams, S. (2005). The future is the past: has technical communication arrived as a profession?. Technical Communication, 52(3), 361-370.
Categories: Communication Design
Summary and Citations:
Pringle and William's article briefly outlines the history of technical communication, current professional practices, to demonstrate that the profession "has arrived" and will continue to be "characterized by a tension between employing sophisticated rhetorical and analytical skill to create effective communications at the same time those skill relied on technology for their implementation and demonstration (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 362).
After reviewing the history and the current practices, the authors shared the results of an observational study of ten individuals in the profession. They found that technical communicators define their practices as "audience analysis, communicating, writing, designing, editing, using technology, and managing" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 365), but when they observed the participants in practice they recorded them "communicating/interacting with co-workers, editing, reviewing documents or other deliverables, conducting research, managing projects, and writing" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 366). The participants also recorded their own work of "writing, managing, designing, and communicating" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 366).
They predicted that "the field will continue to subordinate technology to information design skills ... [the field] will continue to practice and to teach those information design skills ... technical communicators will continue to be heavy users of technology [and they] predict that because our values place the audience first, we will begin participating more frequently in the development cycles of technology" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 367).
Ten years later, their predictions continue to hold water. Helped by agile teams, waterfall models, and forward-thinking professional communicators, those engaged in this work continue to push the field's boundaries while remaining attached to technology and teaching others.
Summary and Citations:
Pringle and William's article briefly outlines the history of technical communication, current professional practices, to demonstrate that the profession "has arrived" and will continue to be "characterized by a tension between employing sophisticated rhetorical and analytical skill to create effective communications at the same time those skill relied on technology for their implementation and demonstration (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 362).
After reviewing the history and the current practices, the authors shared the results of an observational study of ten individuals in the profession. They found that technical communicators define their practices as "audience analysis, communicating, writing, designing, editing, using technology, and managing" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 365), but when they observed the participants in practice they recorded them "communicating/interacting with co-workers, editing, reviewing documents or other deliverables, conducting research, managing projects, and writing" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 366). The participants also recorded their own work of "writing, managing, designing, and communicating" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 366).
They predicted that "the field will continue to subordinate technology to information design skills ... [the field] will continue to practice and to teach those information design skills ... technical communicators will continue to be heavy users of technology [and they] predict that because our values place the audience first, we will begin participating more frequently in the development cycles of technology" (Pringle & Williams, 2005, p. 367).
Ten years later, their predictions continue to hold water. Helped by agile teams, waterfall models, and forward-thinking professional communicators, those engaged in this work continue to push the field's boundaries while remaining attached to technology and teaching others.
Saturday, February 7, 2015
Rainey, K. T. (1999). Doctoral Research in Technical, Scientific, and Business Communication, 1989-1998. Technical Communication: Journal of the Society for Technical Communication, 46(4), 501-31.
Categories: Research Methods
Summary and Citations:
The second of Rainey's studies of technical communication doctoral research. He summarizes his findings brilliantly:
"The most significant result of this study is the identification of a robust theoretical, historical, and practical scholarly production of knowledge that buttresses technical, scientific, and business communication as a profession and solidifies its position among academic disciplines. A rich theoretical tradition is emerging from our study of language
and communication in all their highly ramified connections. Moreover, studies of the discipline itself verify that it has emerged as a viable scholarly pursuit. While in the 1992 study we found only five dissertations that addressed the history of technical communication, since then almost twice that number have emerged (see below). Many other areas of study also have witnessed an increase in the number of studies" (Rainey, 1999, p. 501).
"Second, a major finding of this study is identical to our finding in the previous article: research is occurring across a much broader range of departments and institutions than
those typically associated with professional communication as a discipline. ..." (Rainey, 1999, p. 501)
"Third, the number of studies in the field has increased significantly since 1989. ..." (Rainey, 1999, p. 501)
"Fourth, professional communication research continues to employ standard research methodologies, with a decided bias in favor of qualitative methods (see “Research methods used” in this article)" (Rainey, 1999, p. 502).
"Fifth, a number of areas for further research become evident while I was surveying the topics in these dissertations. Most notably, a number of studies early in the period
achieve negative results and need to be re-examined now to determine whether circumstances have changed. ... New foci for research have emerged since 1992, especially post-modernist, post-constructionist, and social construction interpretations of communication. ... The social/cultural/class impacts of computer-mediated communication
are clearly still to be assessed" (Rainey, 1999, p. 502).
"Studies of the profession itself remain to be made. The history of the discipline is still to be written, even though a number of historical studies have appeared. And in the international arena of technical documentation, studies need to be made of the emergence of standard curricula and national standards for certifying technical communication professionals. ... Doctoral studies of ethics in professional communication have not yet been made, as far as this search has determined. This area poses a rich field of investigation that would be useful to both scholars and practicing professionals, as well as to professional societies. A significant area for investigation is the scope of rhetorical studies; what is needed is a meta-analysis of all the research in rhetoric, both classical and modern, both theoretical and applied, both historical and contemporary (Rainey, 1999, p. 502).
"Finally, the richness of research surveyed for this article suggests both a continuing problem and a valuable opportunity for technical communication. Much of the research
discussed here is inaccessible to practicing professionals for the three reasons Kelly and I cited in 1992:
1. Potential users are not aware of it.
2. Even if they were aware of it, many assume that it is impractical and not understandable.
3. Researchers and their interpreters have yet to discover an efficient method to translate the results of scholarly studies into practical applications. (pp. 552–553)
"The problem is the continuing—actual or perceived—dichotomy between theory and application. Much of the research studied here is not immediately applicable to
workplace communication. What it needs are interpreters to analyze it and formulate ways in which it can be applied. And in that task lies the opportunity not only to
bring solid research into the economy of the workplace but also to demonstrate that even basic research as well as applied research need not be forever separated from
the very real and immediate concerns of practicing technical communicators in the workplace or in the classroom" (Rainey, 1999, p. 503).
Summary and Citations:
The second of Rainey's studies of technical communication doctoral research. He summarizes his findings brilliantly:
"The most significant result of this study is the identification of a robust theoretical, historical, and practical scholarly production of knowledge that buttresses technical, scientific, and business communication as a profession and solidifies its position among academic disciplines. A rich theoretical tradition is emerging from our study of language
and communication in all their highly ramified connections. Moreover, studies of the discipline itself verify that it has emerged as a viable scholarly pursuit. While in the 1992 study we found only five dissertations that addressed the history of technical communication, since then almost twice that number have emerged (see below). Many other areas of study also have witnessed an increase in the number of studies" (Rainey, 1999, p. 501).
"Second, a major finding of this study is identical to our finding in the previous article: research is occurring across a much broader range of departments and institutions than
those typically associated with professional communication as a discipline. ..." (Rainey, 1999, p. 501)
"Third, the number of studies in the field has increased significantly since 1989. ..." (Rainey, 1999, p. 501)
"Fourth, professional communication research continues to employ standard research methodologies, with a decided bias in favor of qualitative methods (see “Research methods used” in this article)" (Rainey, 1999, p. 502).
"Fifth, a number of areas for further research become evident while I was surveying the topics in these dissertations. Most notably, a number of studies early in the period
achieve negative results and need to be re-examined now to determine whether circumstances have changed. ... New foci for research have emerged since 1992, especially post-modernist, post-constructionist, and social construction interpretations of communication. ... The social/cultural/class impacts of computer-mediated communication
are clearly still to be assessed" (Rainey, 1999, p. 502).
"Studies of the profession itself remain to be made. The history of the discipline is still to be written, even though a number of historical studies have appeared. And in the international arena of technical documentation, studies need to be made of the emergence of standard curricula and national standards for certifying technical communication professionals. ... Doctoral studies of ethics in professional communication have not yet been made, as far as this search has determined. This area poses a rich field of investigation that would be useful to both scholars and practicing professionals, as well as to professional societies. A significant area for investigation is the scope of rhetorical studies; what is needed is a meta-analysis of all the research in rhetoric, both classical and modern, both theoretical and applied, both historical and contemporary (Rainey, 1999, p. 502).
"Finally, the richness of research surveyed for this article suggests both a continuing problem and a valuable opportunity for technical communication. Much of the research
discussed here is inaccessible to practicing professionals for the three reasons Kelly and I cited in 1992:
1. Potential users are not aware of it.
2. Even if they were aware of it, many assume that it is impractical and not understandable.
3. Researchers and their interpreters have yet to discover an efficient method to translate the results of scholarly studies into practical applications. (pp. 552–553)
"The problem is the continuing—actual or perceived—dichotomy between theory and application. Much of the research studied here is not immediately applicable to
workplace communication. What it needs are interpreters to analyze it and formulate ways in which it can be applied. And in that task lies the opportunity not only to
bring solid research into the economy of the workplace but also to demonstrate that even basic research as well as applied research need not be forever separated from
the very real and immediate concerns of practicing technical communicators in the workplace or in the classroom" (Rainey, 1999, p. 503).
Swan, K. (2001). Virtual interaction: Design factors affecting student satisfaction and perceived learning in asynchronous online courses. Distance education, 22(2), 306-331.
Categories: Technology, Communication Design
Summary:
Swan's paper reported the results of a 37 course study in New York about student satisfaction with and perceived learning in asynchronous courses. She couched her study within the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model (see depiction below).
Her results indicated that the more students engaged and interacted with the instructor, material, and other students, the better they rated their classroom experience. These findings indicate how seriously those designing courses should work to entice interaction from their students.
Citation-worthy:
"Janick and Liegle (2001) have synthesised the work of a range of instructional design experts in these areas (Anderson & Reiser 1985; Gagne, Briggs & Wager 1988; Hannafin & Peck 1988; Tennyson 1989; Jonassen et al. 1995; Ward & Lee 1995) to develop a list of ten concepts they believe support effective design of Web-based instruction. These are:
• Instructors acting as facilitators
• Use of a variety of presentation styles
• Multiple exercises
• Hands-on problems
• Learner control of pacing
• Frequent testing
• Clear feedback
• Consistent layout
• Clear navigation
• Available help screens
"While it is reasonably well accepted that these design principles support computer-based learning, it remains to be seen whether or not they can be applied to online courses" (Swan, 2001, p. 308).
"Fuller et al. (2000) used Myers-Briggs and Transaction Ability inventories to relate teaching tendencies and styles to instructor effectiveness and satisfaction in online environments. They identify four challenges for virtual instructors:
• overcoming the faceless classroom
• adapting to student centered teaching
• managing time and techniques, and
• establishing the learning " (Swan, 2001, pp. 309-310).
"Research thus far indicates that online courses that are well structured and easy to use, that take advantage of increased access to instructors, and that feature more equitable and democratic discussion are the most successful" (Swan, 2001, p. 311).
"Students who reported higher levels of activity in courses also reported higher levels of satisfaction and higher levels of learning from them (Swan, 2001, p. 315).
"Students who had high perceived levels of interaction with the instructor also had high levels of satisfaction with the course and reported higher levels of learning than students who thought they had less interaction with the instructor" (Swan, 2001, p. 316).
"Students who reported high levels of interaction with their classmates also reported higher levels of satisfaction and higher levels of learning from courses (Swan, 2001, p. 317).
"The greater the consistency among course modules, the more satisfied students were, the more they thought they learned, and the more interaction they thought they had with their instructors. The lower the number of modules in a course, the more students believed they learned from it (Swan, 2001, p. 323).
"The greater the percentage of the course grade that was based on discussion, the more satisfied the students were, the more they thought they learned from the course, and the more interaction they thought they had with the instructor and with their peers (Swan, 2001, p. 325).
The greater the percentage of the course grade that was based on cooperative or group work, the less students thought they learned from the course (Swan, 2001, p. 326).
Students' perceptions of interaction with their peers were related to actual interactions in courses, the percentage of the course grade that was based on discussion, required participation in discussions, and the average length of discussion responses (Swan, 2001, p. 326).
Summary:
Swan's paper reported the results of a 37 course study in New York about student satisfaction with and perceived learning in asynchronous courses. She couched her study within the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model (see depiction below).
Her results indicated that the more students engaged and interacted with the instructor, material, and other students, the better they rated their classroom experience. These findings indicate how seriously those designing courses should work to entice interaction from their students.
Citation-worthy:
"Janick and Liegle (2001) have synthesised the work of a range of instructional design experts in these areas (Anderson & Reiser 1985; Gagne, Briggs & Wager 1988; Hannafin & Peck 1988; Tennyson 1989; Jonassen et al. 1995; Ward & Lee 1995) to develop a list of ten concepts they believe support effective design of Web-based instruction. These are:
• Instructors acting as facilitators
• Use of a variety of presentation styles
• Multiple exercises
• Hands-on problems
• Learner control of pacing
• Frequent testing
• Clear feedback
• Consistent layout
• Clear navigation
• Available help screens
"While it is reasonably well accepted that these design principles support computer-based learning, it remains to be seen whether or not they can be applied to online courses" (Swan, 2001, p. 308).
"Fuller et al. (2000) used Myers-Briggs and Transaction Ability inventories to relate teaching tendencies and styles to instructor effectiveness and satisfaction in online environments. They identify four challenges for virtual instructors:
• overcoming the faceless classroom
• adapting to student centered teaching
• managing time and techniques, and
• establishing the learning " (Swan, 2001, pp. 309-310).
"Research thus far indicates that online courses that are well structured and easy to use, that take advantage of increased access to instructors, and that feature more equitable and democratic discussion are the most successful" (Swan, 2001, p. 311).
"Students who reported higher levels of activity in courses also reported higher levels of satisfaction and higher levels of learning from them (Swan, 2001, p. 315).
"Students who had high perceived levels of interaction with the instructor also had high levels of satisfaction with the course and reported higher levels of learning than students who thought they had less interaction with the instructor" (Swan, 2001, p. 316).
"Students who reported high levels of interaction with their classmates also reported higher levels of satisfaction and higher levels of learning from courses (Swan, 2001, p. 317).
"The greater the consistency among course modules, the more satisfied students were, the more they thought they learned, and the more interaction they thought they had with their instructors. The lower the number of modules in a course, the more students believed they learned from it (Swan, 2001, p. 323).
"The greater the percentage of the course grade that was based on discussion, the more satisfied the students were, the more they thought they learned from the course, and the more interaction they thought they had with the instructor and with their peers (Swan, 2001, p. 325).
The greater the percentage of the course grade that was based on cooperative or group work, the less students thought they learned from the course (Swan, 2001, p. 326).
Students' perceptions of interaction with their peers were related to actual interactions in courses, the percentage of the course grade that was based on discussion, required participation in discussions, and the average length of discussion responses (Swan, 2001, p. 326).
Salvo, M. J. (2002). Critical engagement with technology in the computer classroom. Technical Communication Quarterly, 11(3), 317-337.
Categories: Theory & Rhetoric, Technology
Summary:
Salvo's thesis stated that "Technical communicators have an ethical as well as intellectual
responsibility to engage the interface between technology and culture" (Salvo, 2002, p. 317). He expressed concerns about the oft overlooked difficulties that technology may bring into a classroom. He believed professional, technical communicators must examine the impact of technologies. Using assignments and discussions in a graduate class, he addressed how power, politics, culture, digital literacy, and other variables could impact the experience of a student using technology.
Citation-worthy:
'"Funding for machines is often easier to secure than equally important funding for training, maintenance, and administration (see Grabill; Haas, “On the Relationship”; Klem and Moran; Harralson; Selfe)" (Salvo, 2002, p. 317).
"While remembering that technologies do not always drive change, technologies must be studied critically and evaluated to determine how technologies have been used to support and/or enable practices as well as how the deployment of technology can thwart pedagogy" (Salvo, 2002, p. 318).
"Once raised, the ethical dimension is not limited to sustainability but questions issues of power, particularly the distinction between technology producers and consumers. In addition, Johnson-Eilola’s “Relocating the Value of Work” expands the understanding of technical communication instruction to include context and ethics, yet few concrete details are offered for how one might discuss Robert Reich‘s construction of symbolic-analytic
work at either the graduate or undergraduate level. When attention shifts away from the document itself and towards the context for the design, development, and reception of that document or information object, one places more distance between one’s self and the information object. This distancing allows one to see global issues that impact the design of the information or rhetorical object. In Johnson-Eilola’s construction, how work is understood and defined becomes an important element for discussion" (Salvo, 2002, p. 333).
Summary:
Salvo's thesis stated that "Technical communicators have an ethical as well as intellectual
responsibility to engage the interface between technology and culture" (Salvo, 2002, p. 317). He expressed concerns about the oft overlooked difficulties that technology may bring into a classroom. He believed professional, technical communicators must examine the impact of technologies. Using assignments and discussions in a graduate class, he addressed how power, politics, culture, digital literacy, and other variables could impact the experience of a student using technology.
Citation-worthy:
'"Funding for machines is often easier to secure than equally important funding for training, maintenance, and administration (see Grabill; Haas, “On the Relationship”; Klem and Moran; Harralson; Selfe)" (Salvo, 2002, p. 317).
"While remembering that technologies do not always drive change, technologies must be studied critically and evaluated to determine how technologies have been used to support and/or enable practices as well as how the deployment of technology can thwart pedagogy" (Salvo, 2002, p. 318).
"Once raised, the ethical dimension is not limited to sustainability but questions issues of power, particularly the distinction between technology producers and consumers. In addition, Johnson-Eilola’s “Relocating the Value of Work” expands the understanding of technical communication instruction to include context and ethics, yet few concrete details are offered for how one might discuss Robert Reich‘s construction of symbolic-analytic
work at either the graduate or undergraduate level. When attention shifts away from the document itself and towards the context for the design, development, and reception of that document or information object, one places more distance between one’s self and the information object. This distancing allows one to see global issues that impact the design of the information or rhetorical object. In Johnson-Eilola’s construction, how work is understood and defined becomes an important element for discussion" (Salvo, 2002, p. 333).
Friday, February 6, 2015
Rovai, A. P. (2007). Facilitating online discussions effectively. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(1), 77-88.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary:
Rovai presented a synthesis of best practices and theory about facilitating online discussions. His main points centered on the use of discussion rubrics, social presence, social equality, encouraging student-to-student interactions, and meeting the student motivational and emotional needs.
Citation-worthy:
"Social learning theory focuses on learning that occurs within a social context and involves personal experiences, observations, and interactions with other individuals" (Rovai, 2007, p. 77).
"The theoretical framework used in this article is that of creating and sustaining a constructivist online learning environment. Constructivism is a philosophy of learning based on the notion that individuals construct their own understandings through experience, maturation, and interaction with the environment, especially active interaction with other learners and the instructor (e.g., Bangert, 2004; Partlow & Gibbs, 2003; Rovai, 2004). Accordingly, the defining characteristic of an online constructivist learning environment is discourse, typically in the form of online discussions. Discussion provides learners with opportunities to write, and in doing so, reflect on course content and previous postings by members of the learning community (MacKnight, 2000). Lebow (1993) suggests a constructivist learning environment should possess the following minimum requirements:
• Provision for the knowledge construction process.
• Encouragement of self-awareness of the knowledge construction process.
• Provision for appreciation of multiple perspectives.
• Use of learning tasks that are relevant and authentic.
• Encouragement of ownership and voice in the learning process.
• Learning embedded in social experience.
• Encouragement of the development of multiple modes of representation" (Rovai, 2007, p. 78).
"Drawing on the professional literature and the experiences of the author as an online instructor, an effective strategy for designing a framework for and facilitating online discussions proposed in this article is outlined below.
Design
○ Generate motivation for students to engage in productive discussions, such as grading online discussions, allowing students to choose discussion topics, and contextualizing discussions by drawing on diverse learner backgrounds and perspectives of a topic.
○ Describe the ground rules for online discussions at the start of the course by clearly describing what is expected of students, perhaps using a participation rubric.
○ Provide opportunities for socio-emotional discussions that have the goal of nurturing a strong sense of community within the course.
○ Similarly, provide opportunities for authentic content-and task-oriented discussions. For large class enrollments use group forums rather than class-wide forums.
Facilitation
○ Develop social presence in the virtual classroom.
○ Avoid becoming the center of all discussions, emphasize student-to-student interactions.
○ Attend to issues of social equity based on different cultural communication patterns.
○ Attend to issues of social equity based on different gender-related communication patterns.
○ Increase the status of low status students in order to promote equitable collaborations" (Rovai, 2007, p. 79).
"Online course designers should provide opportunities for personal relationships to develop. Brown (2001) outlines three stages of building community using CMC based on her research:
• Making online acquaintances. Students who sense common interests begin to make contact and form relationships.
• Sensing community acceptance. Students who interact in a thoughtful way over time begin to accept each other.
• Achieving camaraderie. Students feel a sense of rapport, trust, goodwill, and friendship for each other.
"Provide discussion forums for content-and task-oriented authentic discussions that support collaborative group activities and the construction of content knowledge. Authentic topics address “real-life” challenges that adults can relate to and that provide a recognizable context for learning" (Rovai, 2007, p. 81).
"Discussions need to be structured so that students understand expectations" (Rovai, 2007, p. 82).
"A challenge for the online instructor in establishing and maintaining social presence is to show that student postings are read without the instructor becoming the center of all discussions. Meeting this challenge is more an art than a science as instructor communication behavior is influenced by a number of factors, including how well the instructor and students are acquainted, level of classroom community, and the content area. Facilitating online discussions requires special skills; inspiring and managing group discussions are not easy, and the skills of the facilitator have a tremendous impact on the construction of knowledge and community building" (Rovai, 2007, p. 82).
"The following instructor behaviors are also useful in promoting social presence:
• Access the discussion forums each day in order to keep up with the conversations.
• Post at least one message per day in group discussion boards to suggest postings are being read. However, allow learners time for reflection. Postings can be as simple as expressing appreciation, agreement, support, and encouragement. Avoid being sharp or overly critical.
• Maintain a focused discussion and periodically summarize what has or needs to be done (MacKnight, 2000).
• Encourage student dialog by asking thought-provoking questions that stimulate in-depth, reflective discussions and hold students responsible for their thinking (MacKnight, 2000).
82 A.P. Rovai / Internet and Higher Education 10 (2007) 77–88
• Reply immediately after receiving a message via e-mail to acknowledge receipt; indicate when a complete response will be provided" (Rovai, 2007, pp. 82-83).
"Emphasize student-to-student interactions in course dialog" (Rovai, 2007, p. 83).
"Some principles for [student-to-student] the online instructor to follow include:
• Do not respond too quickly to a posting in order to provide the opportunity for students to respond first.
• Instead of mostly making statements or directly answering questions, which will likely terminate productive discourse, ask probing questions and provide encouragement.
• Provide closure to discussion threads after discussion topics have run their course or assign specific students responsibility for providing closure.
• Attend to problems that can disrupt student discussions, particularly aggressive communication that can silence some students.
• Deal tactfully and privately with students who dominate discussions or who remain silent, perhaps by phone conversation or e-mail, in order to create a more equitable communication environment" (Rovai, 2007, p. 83).
"[Cultural Communication] Principles for the instructor to follow include:
• Get students to know each other and learn about their respective backgrounds and learning goals.
• Create a variety of social learning activities that allow multiple opportunities for demonstrating knowledge and skill proficiencies designed to address the diverse range of learning preferences and communication patterns that students bring to instructional environments (Bangert, 2004).
• Recognize and respond to communication patterns that can silence some students. For example, recognize putdowns and alienating or competitive dialog and respond privately to offending students to encourage them to be more inclusive.
• Encourage all students to participate in discussions; use the telephone or e-mail to privately confer with students who remain silent in order to determine the cause" (Rovai, 2007, p. 85).
"Expectation States Theory (Berger, Cohen, & Zelditch, 1966) predicts that students with relatively low status with their peers will interact with classmates less frequently and will learn less than high status students. Minority students, in particular, may be considered low status by their majority white peers... Principles for the instructor to follow include:
• Intervene indirectly to equalize students' status in the classroom by raising the status of those students with lower status by recognizing the importance of their roles and creating problems or discussion topics that require multicultural perspectives.
• Publicly recognize the work students have accomplished, paying particular attention to low status students, through actions such as giving praise, citing student contributions, and assigning significant roles in group projects" (Rovai, 2007, p. 86).
Angelo and Cross (1993) provide a good list of topics for instructors to include or adapt in their courses that have the added benefit of providing feedback to the instructor regarding learning. These topics include:
• One-sentence summaries — students select and articulate only the defining features of an idea.
• Most important point—students describe the most important point of a reading assignment and why it is important to them.
• Muddiest point — students identify the least understood point in a reading assignment.
• Test questions and model answers—students write plausible test questions and model answers for specified topics.
• Self-confidence surveys — students assess their self-confidence regarding specific skills.
• Benefits analysis —students describe how the skills learned in the course relate to their goals and interests in life" (Rovai, 2007, p. 87).
Summary:
Rovai presented a synthesis of best practices and theory about facilitating online discussions. His main points centered on the use of discussion rubrics, social presence, social equality, encouraging student-to-student interactions, and meeting the student motivational and emotional needs.
Citation-worthy:
"Social learning theory focuses on learning that occurs within a social context and involves personal experiences, observations, and interactions with other individuals" (Rovai, 2007, p. 77).
"The theoretical framework used in this article is that of creating and sustaining a constructivist online learning environment. Constructivism is a philosophy of learning based on the notion that individuals construct their own understandings through experience, maturation, and interaction with the environment, especially active interaction with other learners and the instructor (e.g., Bangert, 2004; Partlow & Gibbs, 2003; Rovai, 2004). Accordingly, the defining characteristic of an online constructivist learning environment is discourse, typically in the form of online discussions. Discussion provides learners with opportunities to write, and in doing so, reflect on course content and previous postings by members of the learning community (MacKnight, 2000). Lebow (1993) suggests a constructivist learning environment should possess the following minimum requirements:
• Provision for the knowledge construction process.
• Encouragement of self-awareness of the knowledge construction process.
• Provision for appreciation of multiple perspectives.
• Use of learning tasks that are relevant and authentic.
• Encouragement of ownership and voice in the learning process.
• Learning embedded in social experience.
• Encouragement of the development of multiple modes of representation" (Rovai, 2007, p. 78).
"Drawing on the professional literature and the experiences of the author as an online instructor, an effective strategy for designing a framework for and facilitating online discussions proposed in this article is outlined below.
Design
○ Generate motivation for students to engage in productive discussions, such as grading online discussions, allowing students to choose discussion topics, and contextualizing discussions by drawing on diverse learner backgrounds and perspectives of a topic.
○ Describe the ground rules for online discussions at the start of the course by clearly describing what is expected of students, perhaps using a participation rubric.
○ Provide opportunities for socio-emotional discussions that have the goal of nurturing a strong sense of community within the course.
○ Similarly, provide opportunities for authentic content-and task-oriented discussions. For large class enrollments use group forums rather than class-wide forums.
Facilitation
○ Develop social presence in the virtual classroom.
○ Avoid becoming the center of all discussions, emphasize student-to-student interactions.
○ Attend to issues of social equity based on different cultural communication patterns.
○ Attend to issues of social equity based on different gender-related communication patterns.
○ Increase the status of low status students in order to promote equitable collaborations" (Rovai, 2007, p. 79).
"Online course designers should provide opportunities for personal relationships to develop. Brown (2001) outlines three stages of building community using CMC based on her research:
• Making online acquaintances. Students who sense common interests begin to make contact and form relationships.
• Sensing community acceptance. Students who interact in a thoughtful way over time begin to accept each other.
• Achieving camaraderie. Students feel a sense of rapport, trust, goodwill, and friendship for each other.
"Provide discussion forums for content-and task-oriented authentic discussions that support collaborative group activities and the construction of content knowledge. Authentic topics address “real-life” challenges that adults can relate to and that provide a recognizable context for learning" (Rovai, 2007, p. 81).
"Discussions need to be structured so that students understand expectations" (Rovai, 2007, p. 82).
"A challenge for the online instructor in establishing and maintaining social presence is to show that student postings are read without the instructor becoming the center of all discussions. Meeting this challenge is more an art than a science as instructor communication behavior is influenced by a number of factors, including how well the instructor and students are acquainted, level of classroom community, and the content area. Facilitating online discussions requires special skills; inspiring and managing group discussions are not easy, and the skills of the facilitator have a tremendous impact on the construction of knowledge and community building" (Rovai, 2007, p. 82).
"The following instructor behaviors are also useful in promoting social presence:
• Access the discussion forums each day in order to keep up with the conversations.
• Post at least one message per day in group discussion boards to suggest postings are being read. However, allow learners time for reflection. Postings can be as simple as expressing appreciation, agreement, support, and encouragement. Avoid being sharp or overly critical.
• Maintain a focused discussion and periodically summarize what has or needs to be done (MacKnight, 2000).
• Encourage student dialog by asking thought-provoking questions that stimulate in-depth, reflective discussions and hold students responsible for their thinking (MacKnight, 2000).
82 A.P. Rovai / Internet and Higher Education 10 (2007) 77–88
• Reply immediately after receiving a message via e-mail to acknowledge receipt; indicate when a complete response will be provided" (Rovai, 2007, pp. 82-83).
"Emphasize student-to-student interactions in course dialog" (Rovai, 2007, p. 83).
"Some principles for [student-to-student] the online instructor to follow include:
• Do not respond too quickly to a posting in order to provide the opportunity for students to respond first.
• Instead of mostly making statements or directly answering questions, which will likely terminate productive discourse, ask probing questions and provide encouragement.
• Provide closure to discussion threads after discussion topics have run their course or assign specific students responsibility for providing closure.
• Attend to problems that can disrupt student discussions, particularly aggressive communication that can silence some students.
• Deal tactfully and privately with students who dominate discussions or who remain silent, perhaps by phone conversation or e-mail, in order to create a more equitable communication environment" (Rovai, 2007, p. 83).
"[Cultural Communication] Principles for the instructor to follow include:
• Get students to know each other and learn about their respective backgrounds and learning goals.
• Create a variety of social learning activities that allow multiple opportunities for demonstrating knowledge and skill proficiencies designed to address the diverse range of learning preferences and communication patterns that students bring to instructional environments (Bangert, 2004).
• Recognize and respond to communication patterns that can silence some students. For example, recognize putdowns and alienating or competitive dialog and respond privately to offending students to encourage them to be more inclusive.
• Encourage all students to participate in discussions; use the telephone or e-mail to privately confer with students who remain silent in order to determine the cause" (Rovai, 2007, p. 85).
"Expectation States Theory (Berger, Cohen, & Zelditch, 1966) predicts that students with relatively low status with their peers will interact with classmates less frequently and will learn less than high status students. Minority students, in particular, may be considered low status by their majority white peers... Principles for the instructor to follow include:
• Intervene indirectly to equalize students' status in the classroom by raising the status of those students with lower status by recognizing the importance of their roles and creating problems or discussion topics that require multicultural perspectives.
• Publicly recognize the work students have accomplished, paying particular attention to low status students, through actions such as giving praise, citing student contributions, and assigning significant roles in group projects" (Rovai, 2007, p. 86).
Angelo and Cross (1993) provide a good list of topics for instructors to include or adapt in their courses that have the added benefit of providing feedback to the instructor regarding learning. These topics include:
• One-sentence summaries — students select and articulate only the defining features of an idea.
• Most important point—students describe the most important point of a reading assignment and why it is important to them.
• Muddiest point — students identify the least understood point in a reading assignment.
• Test questions and model answers—students write plausible test questions and model answers for specified topics.
• Self-confidence surveys — students assess their self-confidence regarding specific skills.
• Benefits analysis —students describe how the skills learned in the course relate to their goals and interests in life" (Rovai, 2007, p. 87).
Thursday, February 5, 2015
Zutshi, S., O'Hare, S., & Rodafinos, A. (2013). Experiences in MOOCs: The Perspective of Students. American Journal of Distance Education, 27(4), 218-227.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology
Summary:
Zutshi, O'Hare, and Rodafinos sought to determine what students felt about their experiences with Massive open online courses (MOOCs), and what the common issues they posted about in their personal blogs. The first concern with this study was the sample size of 21 blog posts. MOOCs by definition, are massive, and their research approach should be considered when weighing their conclusions. Additionally, is there a specific tie to blogs and MOOCs? Their results, unsurprisingly, were vague; in their own words, "students reported mixed experiences and identified both positive and negative aspects" (p. 227).
They reported a need for clarity of assessment instructions and a lack of feeling a part of the class because of student size and the students' impression about the inpersonal nature of the MOOCs.
Citation-worthy:
"MOOCs are a comparatively recent phenomenon in online education. The term MOOC is often traced to a course run in 2008 on Connectivism and Connective Knowledge (see, e.g., Mackness, Mak, andWilliams 2010) that allowed anyone to participate in the course alongside a small number of for-credit students. Since then, the term has come to refer to any online educational course that is available at no or minimal cost, is open to a very large number of students, and for which the educational materials and resources are freely available online. Although often characterized as a single phenomenon in the popular media, the term can encompass quite a wide variety of online courses. For instance, a distinction can be made between cMOOCs and xMOOCs (Daniel 2012). cMOOCs are characterized as MOOCs that are more strongly based on connectivist ideals, are often less structured, and are typically influenced by ideals similar to those of Illich (1971) regarding empowering learners and providing access to learning materials to all who might wish to learn. By contrast, xMOOCs are referred to as the Ivy League-type, university-run, venturecapital- funded MOOCs with comparatively fixed and prescriptive curricula. Coursera, Udacity, and edX MOOCs are examples of xMOOCs. There is also an interesting subfamily of MOOC platforms entirely outside of the university system (e.g., Khan Academy, Peer-to-Peer University, Udemy, Futurelearn), offering calendar-based or complete-at-your-own-timeline courses" (Zutshi, O'Hare, Rodafinos, 2013, pp. 218-219).
"A number of concerns regardingMOOCs remain. Three common ones are regarding the business model, the pedagogical approach(es) employed, and the low completion rates (Daniel 2012)" (Zutshi, O'Hare, Rodafinos, 2013, p. 219).
Summary:
Zutshi, O'Hare, and Rodafinos sought to determine what students felt about their experiences with Massive open online courses (MOOCs), and what the common issues they posted about in their personal blogs. The first concern with this study was the sample size of 21 blog posts. MOOCs by definition, are massive, and their research approach should be considered when weighing their conclusions. Additionally, is there a specific tie to blogs and MOOCs? Their results, unsurprisingly, were vague; in their own words, "students reported mixed experiences and identified both positive and negative aspects" (p. 227).
They reported a need for clarity of assessment instructions and a lack of feeling a part of the class because of student size and the students' impression about the inpersonal nature of the MOOCs.
Citation-worthy:
"MOOCs are a comparatively recent phenomenon in online education. The term MOOC is often traced to a course run in 2008 on Connectivism and Connective Knowledge (see, e.g., Mackness, Mak, andWilliams 2010) that allowed anyone to participate in the course alongside a small number of for-credit students. Since then, the term has come to refer to any online educational course that is available at no or minimal cost, is open to a very large number of students, and for which the educational materials and resources are freely available online. Although often characterized as a single phenomenon in the popular media, the term can encompass quite a wide variety of online courses. For instance, a distinction can be made between cMOOCs and xMOOCs (Daniel 2012). cMOOCs are characterized as MOOCs that are more strongly based on connectivist ideals, are often less structured, and are typically influenced by ideals similar to those of Illich (1971) regarding empowering learners and providing access to learning materials to all who might wish to learn. By contrast, xMOOCs are referred to as the Ivy League-type, university-run, venturecapital- funded MOOCs with comparatively fixed and prescriptive curricula. Coursera, Udacity, and edX MOOCs are examples of xMOOCs. There is also an interesting subfamily of MOOC platforms entirely outside of the university system (e.g., Khan Academy, Peer-to-Peer University, Udemy, Futurelearn), offering calendar-based or complete-at-your-own-timeline courses" (Zutshi, O'Hare, Rodafinos, 2013, pp. 218-219).
"A number of concerns regardingMOOCs remain. Three common ones are regarding the business model, the pedagogical approach(es) employed, and the low completion rates (Daniel 2012)" (Zutshi, O'Hare, Rodafinos, 2013, p. 219).
Santovec, M. L. (2005). Counting the costs of distance education. Education Executive, 24(5), 5-6.
Category: Research Methods, Theory & Rhetoric, Technology
Summary:
Common belief currently stated that distance education is less expensive to institutions than traditional brick and mortal instruction. This article provided information and fiscal considerations for those institutions considering adding distance education courses.
The authors focus on the fixed costs of:
- Learning Management Systems (LMS) / Course Management Systems (CMS)
- Program administration like salaries, infrastructure, equipment, travel, supplies, and bandwidth.
and the variable costs of:
- Instructors
- Per-student costs
Santovec suggested that the best way to reduce costs is to negotiate the cost with vendors. She then stressed the importance of having systems that work so instructors spend their time on academic issues, not on technical challenges or problems.
Summary:
Common belief currently stated that distance education is less expensive to institutions than traditional brick and mortal instruction. This article provided information and fiscal considerations for those institutions considering adding distance education courses.
The authors focus on the fixed costs of:
- Learning Management Systems (LMS) / Course Management Systems (CMS)
- Program administration like salaries, infrastructure, equipment, travel, supplies, and bandwidth.
and the variable costs of:
- Instructors
- Per-student costs
Santovec suggested that the best way to reduce costs is to negotiate the cost with vendors. She then stressed the importance of having systems that work so instructors spend their time on academic issues, not on technical challenges or problems.
Wednesday, February 4, 2015
Savery, J. R. (2005). BE VOCAL: Characteristics of successful online instructors. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 4(2), 141-152.
Categories: Communication Design, Technology, Theory & Rhetoric
Summary:
Savery outlines his VOCAL (visible, organized, compassionate, analytical, leader-by-example) attributes of successful online instructors. While most of the information in the article is now common knowledge and practice among scholars in this discipline, this paper outlined one of the larger studies on best practices from the first decade of the twenty-first century.
One may question one point in the article, the statement "write WAY MORE in an online environment than is necessary." I may be splitting hairs, but it seems superior to write clearly and concisely.
Citation-worthy:
"Simply stated, to maximize their effectiveness as teachers in the online classroom instructors need to BE VOCAL. Please note, this does NOT mean that instructors need to “talk” a lot" (Savery, 2005, p. 141).
"Visibility is closely linked with the concept of social presence (Fabro & Garrison, 1998; McIsaac & Gunawardena, 1996; Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 1999). Social presence is defined as the degree of awareness of another person in an interaction and the consequent appreciation of an interpersonal relationship (Walther, 1992). Social presence is the degree of feeling, perception and reaction of being connected to another intellectual entity and in the context of an online learning environment, social presence impacts online interaction (Tammelin, 1998; Tu & McIsaac, 2002)" (Savery, 2005, p. 143).
"Suggested [visibility] strategies. Instructor visibility is demonstrated through public and
private communication channels. Public visibility would include:
1) A web site with personal and professional information about the instructor. This ‘personal’ web site should reflect the personality of an instructor and allow the students to get to know them better. Information to place on the website might be a recent photo of the instructor, pictures of their pets, a list of favorite places to visit, books recently read, and so on. The key idea is to enable students to initiate conversations on topics of shared interest. There will always be time to discuss course content but this will become easier when the ‘strangeness’ has been reduced.
2) Instructor comments made in a timely fashion to the shared discussion forums to let students know that you are reading their messages.
3) Broadcast messages in the form of email to all participants.
4) Banner notices on the Welcome page updated regularly. This technique may be used to recognize a contribution or event in the life of a particular student, or to provide a general announcement about a recent resource or article of interest.
5) Updating the shared calendar with assignment due dates, or ‘Tuesday’s Trivia Question.’ The specific vehicle used will depend on the capabilities of the online learning environment.
6) In the near future, as bandwidth constraints are removed instructors and students will be able to interact through brief video clips and audio messages. Properly done this technology can provide for strong visibility and social presence" (Savery, 2005, pp. 143-144).
"Organization also means anticipation. Experienced classroom teachers – those who have taught a grade or subject area several times- prepare instructional materials for their students that are ‘bulletproof’ meaning directions are clear for all assignments, instructional materials have been thoroughly reviewed and problems that developed in previous teaching sessions have been addressed. It is better to have more materials prepared than might be needed" (Savery, 2005, p. 145).
"Suggested [organization] Strategies:
1) Require your students to take an online self-assessment and report back (to you or the class) on what they think are the characteristics of a successful online student.
2) Prepare your syllabus carefully and thoroughly (Fullmer-Umari, 2000) and post it on the LMS so it is easily accessible by your students. A well-conceived syllabus is pre-emptive in that it answers learner questions before they are asked.
3) Provide the course assignments and due dates early in the course so students know what to expect and when. Use the capabilities of the web-based environment to hyperlink resource documents to assignments.
4) Prepare a document that explains the “Do’s and Don’ts” of your online class. Describe rules for netiquette, for comments in the discussion forums, and for communicating concerns to the instructor. Some instructors have students send an email message acknowledging that they have read the Class Rules and agree to abide by them.
5) Anticipate the need for a ‘non-instructional’ venue for online discussions by creating a discussion topic such as ‘The Coffee Shop’ for non-course relateddiscussions. This Coffee Shop is usually created within the discussion forum area of the LMS with a clear mandate to be used for social talk.
6) Consider creating a discussion forum topic that allows for posting of current affairs information. Assign one or more students the task of adding a weekly news item that links to central themes in the course.
7) Use different formats for online resources and label each clearly (pdf, htm, doc, ppt). Allow students to select which format is most useful to them– i.e., students who need to download files and those who are comfortable with reading online. Provide information and links to specific applications such as Adobe Reader for pdf files.
8) As the instructor, you can use the capabilities of the LMS to control access to course materials. A selective release function manages files so that new instructional material is made available to the student only when mastery of previous material has been demonstrated. Depending on the sophistication of the LMS this may or may not be feasible. The purpose of this function is to allow the student to progress at their own best pace while ensuring that the instructional objectives have been achieved" (Savery, 2005, p. 146).
"Compassionate:Why [does] it [matter]? Many adults choose an online format because of the conditions they face in the real world. Many are working full time and/or raising their children and/or taking care of their parents. In an effort to upgrade their skills or qualifications they are adding this online course to an already crowded existence with many conflicting demands on their time and energy. Students in an online course are also subject to the whims of computer and network technologies. Technology literacy and functional competence are required/expected of online students and too often their knowledge of technology is both superficial and brittle. When some aspect of the online world is not working as expected, some may simply give up, while others may become frustrated" (Savery, 2005, p. 146).
"Suggested [compassion] Strategies:
1) Give students permission to communicate directly with you (as the instructor). The pressures of daily life are often unplanned – a sick child/spouse/parent can wreck havoc on the best intentions of completing an assignment by the due date.
2) In the threaded discussion topics for the class introduce an All About Me category. This will introduce the members of the online community to their covoyagers in the online class. When a student reveals that they are a single parent with three children and a full-time job (or some other reality) it will help the members of the community grow together. Names on the class list become ‘real people’ and everyone in the class begins to learn more about each other.
3) Use established ice-breaker techniques like a discussion topic that asks learners to a) post a message about themselves that contains two truths and one lie, or b) to share something about themselves that they are most proud of, or c) to share something that nobody knows about them (a hobby or talent).
4) When a student shares information with the instructor (e.g. death in family) ask if you can share this with the rest of the online community. The visibility element mentioned earlier applies to all members of the online community so this is a fair request – but permission is necessary.
5) If necessary, remind students of the Class Rules (see Organization) concerning expected conduct, levels of participation, and how you will respond to unanticipated problems" (Savery, 2005, pp. 146-147).
"Suggested [analytical] Strategies:
1) Provide smaller and more frequent assessments and spread assessment activities across the course. This strategy helps reduce test anxiety and provides learners with additional opportunities to process course concepts and content (Northedge, 2002).
2) Consider using face-to-face exams with your students for learning outcomes such as applied demonstration of skills that could only be assessed in this format. The University of Phoenix (http://www.uopxonline.com/) has satellite offices where students go in person to take a proctored final exam to determine their grade.
3) When using online assignments specify the format for completed work that will be submitted electronically by the students (font size, headers, margins, word processing application). Specify also the file naming conventions students are to use such as [lastname]-essay.doc as this will help you to sort submitted assignments using the alphabetized class roster.
4) Provide opportunities for students to evaluate the online course at the mid-point as well as at the end of the course. Reflection can foster an appreciation for accomplishments and afford an opportunity to clarify perceptions.
5) Provide clear expectations and guidelines for assessing participation. This can be in the form of assigned leadership roles for discussions of the readings or as an expectation for a minimum number of substantive postings to each discussion thread within a given period of time (Savery, 2005, p. 148).
Specific [Leader-by-example] Strategies:
1) Introductions – share information about yourself with your students both formally with a website that you have created or informally as part of the threaded discussions.
2) Follow-through with promises. If you commit to doing something (providing an online resource or grading an assignment) model responsibility by completing that task in the allotted time.
3) Model the WRITE WAY to communicate in an online environment. Share the strategies described by Lewis (2000) for effective communication in the largely text-based online class.
4) Utilize the public and private channels of communication to ensure that you are visible to your students – without dominating the conversations.
5) Plan for and implement an end of course activity to bring closure to the class, reinforce what was learned, revisit some high points in the course, and acknowledge the contributions by members to the success of the learning community" (Savery, 2005, p. 149).
Summary:
Savery outlines his VOCAL (visible, organized, compassionate, analytical, leader-by-example) attributes of successful online instructors. While most of the information in the article is now common knowledge and practice among scholars in this discipline, this paper outlined one of the larger studies on best practices from the first decade of the twenty-first century.
One may question one point in the article, the statement "write WAY MORE in an online environment than is necessary." I may be splitting hairs, but it seems superior to write clearly and concisely.
Citation-worthy:
"Simply stated, to maximize their effectiveness as teachers in the online classroom instructors need to BE VOCAL. Please note, this does NOT mean that instructors need to “talk” a lot" (Savery, 2005, p. 141).
"Visibility is closely linked with the concept of social presence (Fabro & Garrison, 1998; McIsaac & Gunawardena, 1996; Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 1999). Social presence is defined as the degree of awareness of another person in an interaction and the consequent appreciation of an interpersonal relationship (Walther, 1992). Social presence is the degree of feeling, perception and reaction of being connected to another intellectual entity and in the context of an online learning environment, social presence impacts online interaction (Tammelin, 1998; Tu & McIsaac, 2002)" (Savery, 2005, p. 143).
"Suggested [visibility] strategies. Instructor visibility is demonstrated through public and
private communication channels. Public visibility would include:
1) A web site with personal and professional information about the instructor. This ‘personal’ web site should reflect the personality of an instructor and allow the students to get to know them better. Information to place on the website might be a recent photo of the instructor, pictures of their pets, a list of favorite places to visit, books recently read, and so on. The key idea is to enable students to initiate conversations on topics of shared interest. There will always be time to discuss course content but this will become easier when the ‘strangeness’ has been reduced.
2) Instructor comments made in a timely fashion to the shared discussion forums to let students know that you are reading their messages.
3) Broadcast messages in the form of email to all participants.
4) Banner notices on the Welcome page updated regularly. This technique may be used to recognize a contribution or event in the life of a particular student, or to provide a general announcement about a recent resource or article of interest.
5) Updating the shared calendar with assignment due dates, or ‘Tuesday’s Trivia Question.’ The specific vehicle used will depend on the capabilities of the online learning environment.
6) In the near future, as bandwidth constraints are removed instructors and students will be able to interact through brief video clips and audio messages. Properly done this technology can provide for strong visibility and social presence" (Savery, 2005, pp. 143-144).
"Organization also means anticipation. Experienced classroom teachers – those who have taught a grade or subject area several times- prepare instructional materials for their students that are ‘bulletproof’ meaning directions are clear for all assignments, instructional materials have been thoroughly reviewed and problems that developed in previous teaching sessions have been addressed. It is better to have more materials prepared than might be needed" (Savery, 2005, p. 145).
"Suggested [organization] Strategies:
1) Require your students to take an online self-assessment and report back (to you or the class) on what they think are the characteristics of a successful online student.
2) Prepare your syllabus carefully and thoroughly (Fullmer-Umari, 2000) and post it on the LMS so it is easily accessible by your students. A well-conceived syllabus is pre-emptive in that it answers learner questions before they are asked.
3) Provide the course assignments and due dates early in the course so students know what to expect and when. Use the capabilities of the web-based environment to hyperlink resource documents to assignments.
4) Prepare a document that explains the “Do’s and Don’ts” of your online class. Describe rules for netiquette, for comments in the discussion forums, and for communicating concerns to the instructor. Some instructors have students send an email message acknowledging that they have read the Class Rules and agree to abide by them.
5) Anticipate the need for a ‘non-instructional’ venue for online discussions by creating a discussion topic such as ‘The Coffee Shop’ for non-course relateddiscussions. This Coffee Shop is usually created within the discussion forum area of the LMS with a clear mandate to be used for social talk.
6) Consider creating a discussion forum topic that allows for posting of current affairs information. Assign one or more students the task of adding a weekly news item that links to central themes in the course.
7) Use different formats for online resources and label each clearly (pdf, htm, doc, ppt). Allow students to select which format is most useful to them– i.e., students who need to download files and those who are comfortable with reading online. Provide information and links to specific applications such as Adobe Reader for pdf files.
8) As the instructor, you can use the capabilities of the LMS to control access to course materials. A selective release function manages files so that new instructional material is made available to the student only when mastery of previous material has been demonstrated. Depending on the sophistication of the LMS this may or may not be feasible. The purpose of this function is to allow the student to progress at their own best pace while ensuring that the instructional objectives have been achieved" (Savery, 2005, p. 146).
"Compassionate:Why [does] it [matter]? Many adults choose an online format because of the conditions they face in the real world. Many are working full time and/or raising their children and/or taking care of their parents. In an effort to upgrade their skills or qualifications they are adding this online course to an already crowded existence with many conflicting demands on their time and energy. Students in an online course are also subject to the whims of computer and network technologies. Technology literacy and functional competence are required/expected of online students and too often their knowledge of technology is both superficial and brittle. When some aspect of the online world is not working as expected, some may simply give up, while others may become frustrated" (Savery, 2005, p. 146).
"Suggested [compassion] Strategies:
1) Give students permission to communicate directly with you (as the instructor). The pressures of daily life are often unplanned – a sick child/spouse/parent can wreck havoc on the best intentions of completing an assignment by the due date.
2) In the threaded discussion topics for the class introduce an All About Me category. This will introduce the members of the online community to their covoyagers in the online class. When a student reveals that they are a single parent with three children and a full-time job (or some other reality) it will help the members of the community grow together. Names on the class list become ‘real people’ and everyone in the class begins to learn more about each other.
3) Use established ice-breaker techniques like a discussion topic that asks learners to a) post a message about themselves that contains two truths and one lie, or b) to share something about themselves that they are most proud of, or c) to share something that nobody knows about them (a hobby or talent).
4) When a student shares information with the instructor (e.g. death in family) ask if you can share this with the rest of the online community. The visibility element mentioned earlier applies to all members of the online community so this is a fair request – but permission is necessary.
5) If necessary, remind students of the Class Rules (see Organization) concerning expected conduct, levels of participation, and how you will respond to unanticipated problems" (Savery, 2005, pp. 146-147).
"Suggested [analytical] Strategies:
1) Provide smaller and more frequent assessments and spread assessment activities across the course. This strategy helps reduce test anxiety and provides learners with additional opportunities to process course concepts and content (Northedge, 2002).
2) Consider using face-to-face exams with your students for learning outcomes such as applied demonstration of skills that could only be assessed in this format. The University of Phoenix (http://www.uopxonline.com/) has satellite offices where students go in person to take a proctored final exam to determine their grade.
3) When using online assignments specify the format for completed work that will be submitted electronically by the students (font size, headers, margins, word processing application). Specify also the file naming conventions students are to use such as [lastname]-essay.doc as this will help you to sort submitted assignments using the alphabetized class roster.
4) Provide opportunities for students to evaluate the online course at the mid-point as well as at the end of the course. Reflection can foster an appreciation for accomplishments and afford an opportunity to clarify perceptions.
5) Provide clear expectations and guidelines for assessing participation. This can be in the form of assigned leadership roles for discussions of the readings or as an expectation for a minimum number of substantive postings to each discussion thread within a given period of time (Savery, 2005, p. 148).
Specific [Leader-by-example] Strategies:
1) Introductions – share information about yourself with your students both formally with a website that you have created or informally as part of the threaded discussions.
2) Follow-through with promises. If you commit to doing something (providing an online resource or grading an assignment) model responsibility by completing that task in the allotted time.
3) Model the WRITE WAY to communicate in an online environment. Share the strategies described by Lewis (2000) for effective communication in the largely text-based online class.
4) Utilize the public and private channels of communication to ensure that you are visible to your students – without dominating the conversations.
5) Plan for and implement an end of course activity to bring closure to the class, reinforce what was learned, revisit some high points in the course, and acknowledge the contributions by members to the success of the learning community" (Savery, 2005, p. 149).
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